Stigma and fear during COVID-19: essentializing religion in an Indian context

Social groups often define themselves in relation to others, sometimes attributing negative characteristics to out-groups. This becomes problematic when these negative portrayals are essentialized—presented as inherent and unchanging attributes—leading to dehumanization and social inequality. Essentialization operates at multiple levels, and right-wing politics frequently utilize it to differentiate majority from minority groups. This differentiation is often reflected in political discourse and internalized by society. India, with its history of social cleavages along religious, caste, and gender lines, provides a fertile ground for such processes. During the COVID-19 pandemic, majoritarian rhetoric was used to unfairly target lower-income groups, castes, and religious minorities, portraying them as super-spreaders. This prejudice can be analyzed through Critical Race Theory (CRT), which examines how social hierarchies enable the subjugation of weaker citizens. While the concept of 'race' might not directly align with the Indian context of religious discrimination, CRT offers valuable tools to deconstruct inter-community relations. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted existing social hierarchies, amplified by media narratives and politicized groups. The ancient caste system, while officially abolished, continues to influence social interactions. Despite constitutional safeguards against discrimination, discriminatory practices persist, reflecting ingrained belief systems. The essentialization process, coupled with the media's role, re-inscribes these beliefs. India's diverse religious and cultural landscape makes majoritarian views particularly problematic. The assertive religiosity of Muslims, comprising nearly 14% of the population, exacerbated existing tensions. The incident at the New Delhi's Markaz in February 2020, involving a religious congregation, became a focal point for accusations of 'Corona-jihad', inappropriately extending blame from a small group to the entire Muslim community. This paper argues that a nexus between certain media outlets and political groups communalized the pandemic's spread, diverting attention from crucial aspects like medical management and economic relief. The overemphasis on the religious identity of infected individuals fueled stigma and fear, discouraging people from disclosing travel histories and aggravating the contagion. The resulting distrust undermined national and international solidarity. This study aims to analyze how social groups were essentialized during the pandemic by the media and competing political groups. It will draw on essentialization theory (Wagner & Semati) and CRT to examine social relations and conflicts during the COVID-19 pandemic in India. While existing literature addresses caste and religious politics in India, it lacks a systematic examination of how society and media respond to these dynamics during pandemics.

The paper draws heavily on Wagner's theory of essentialization, which posits that essentializing portrays group characteristics as inherent and unchanging, leading to dehumanization and conflict. Semati's work extends this theory by distinguishing between positive and negative essentialism regarding Islam, critiquing approaches that vilify the religion from an external perspective. Critical Race Theory (CRT) provides a framework for understanding how social hierarchies and power dynamics perpetuate discrimination. The authors cite various works exploring caste and religious politics in India, highlighting the absence of systematic research on media's role during pandemics. Specific works referenced include those by Romila Thapar, A.G. Noorani, Sadanand Menon, Rohit Azad, Janaki Nair, Mohinder Singh, Mallarika Sinha Roy, Angana P. Chatterjee, Thomas Blom Hansen, Christopher Jaffrelot, Arundhati Roy, and Anustup Basu. The authors also draw upon studies on stigma and discrimination related to infectious diseases like AIDS and Ebola, noting the parallels with the COVID-19 situation in India. Concepts such as 'cultural tightness', 'metonymic representation', and 'psychological essentialization' are discussed in relation to the construction of the 'Muslim Other'. The role of media in shaping public opinion and reinforcing stereotypes is explored through studies on the third-person effect and negative priming. Finally, the PEN-3 model, a culture-centered approach to addressing health issues, is mentioned as a potential tool for mitigating the impacts of stigma during pandemics.

The study employs a qualitative approach, analyzing news reports from print and electronic media in India during the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers focus on how these media outlets represented the spread of COVID-19 and the role of religious identity in these narratives. The analysis centers on the concept of essentialization, specifically examining how the actions of a specific Muslim group, the Tablighi Jamaat, were generalized to represent the entire Muslim community. Critical Race Theory provides a framework for interpreting how media representations reinforced existing power structures and contributed to the stigmatization of the Muslim community. The methodology does not involve primary data collection or statistical analysis but rather a critical examination of existing news reports. The researchers use examples from prominent media outlets both within India and internationally, such as Al Jazeera, to illustrate how narratives were constructed and spread. The focus is on analyzing recurring themes, language used, and the overall construction of the narrative surrounding the pandemic and the Muslim community in India. This approach allows the researchers to trace how specific events were used to construct and reinforce negative stereotypes, contributing to the broader atmosphere of fear and stigma that hampered efforts to control the spread of the virus. The paper specifically highlights the use of repeated tropes, metonymic representation, and the reinforcement of pre-existing stereotypes in shaping public perception.

The study identifies several key findings regarding the essentialization of religious groups in India during the COVID-19 pandemic. First, it shows how the actions of a relatively small group, the Tablighi Jamaat, were metonymically linked to the entire Muslim community in India. This led to the widespread stigmatization of Muslims as a group, regardless of individual actions or beliefs. Second, the research demonstrates the significant role of media in propagating this essentialization. The repeated use of certain keywords and phrases in news articles and social media contributed to the creation of a negative stereotype of Muslims as being responsible for the spread of the virus. Third, the paper highlights the interplay between media representations and political agendas. Certain political groups used the pandemic as an opportunity to advance their own interests by further marginalizing and demonizing the Muslim community. This had significant consequences for the public health response, as many Muslims avoided reporting symptoms or seeking healthcare due to fear of discrimination. Fourth, the study reveals how essentialization can exacerbate pre-existing social inequalities in India. Groups already facing discrimination, such as lower-caste communities and Dalits, experienced heightened stigmatization and violence during the pandemic. The researchers also note the contrast between states such as Kerala and Assam. Kerala, through its participatory and inclusive governance model, managed to effectively combat both misinformation and the virus itself. Assam, on the other hand, had more instances of communities flouting COVID-19 protocols, partly due to less scientific temper and the prevalence of disinformation. The study’s findings reveal a clear causal link between the way media represented the pandemic and the resulting increase in stigma and fear-mongering. The researchers argue that this atmosphere not only harmed individuals within the stigmatized communities but also hampered efforts to control the spread of the virus itself. Finally, the study illustrates how the term 'jihad' was manipulated and employed in the context of the pandemic, adding an inflammatory and politicized layer to the situation. The paper underlines how this manipulation contributed to the increased tension and made effective containment more challenging.

The findings of this study highlight the complex interplay between essentialization, media representation, and political agendas in shaping public health crises. The case of COVID-19 in India demonstrates how the actions of a single group can be generalized to an entire religious community, fueling prejudice and discrimination. The media's role in reinforcing existing stereotypes, and amplifying political narratives, is shown to have exacerbated the problem. This suggests that media literacy and responsible reporting are crucial for effective pandemic response. The study also underscores the importance of addressing social inequalities and historical prejudices in the context of public health. The contrasting experiences of Kerala and Assam demonstrate the impact of governance models and community participation. A more inclusive and participatory approach, which prioritizes communication and combats misinformation, is essential for better pandemic management. Furthermore, the research indicates the need for a more nuanced understanding of complex religious and cultural identities to avoid simplistic and harmful generalizations. The study contributes to the broader understanding of how essentialization and prejudice can impact public health outcomes, particularly in societies characterized by deep-seated social divisions. The findings underscore the need for media reform, improved public health infrastructure, and broader societal efforts to combat prejudice and discrimination.

This study shows how the essentialization of religious groups, amplified by media and political narratives, significantly hampered the COVID-19 response in India. The stigmatization of Muslims following the Tablighi Jamaat incident demonstrates the dangers of simplistic generalizations and the detrimental impact of prejudice on public health. The contrasting responses of Kerala and Assam highlight the importance of inclusive governance and community engagement. Future research should examine the role of social media platforms in spreading misinformation and inciting communal violence during pandemics. The paper concludes with a call for responsible media reporting, greater public health investments, and a concerted effort to address the underlying social inequalities that fuel prejudice and discrimination.

This study is limited by its reliance on secondary data, specifically news reports from print and electronic media. The analysis does not include data from social media or direct interviews with individuals from affected communities. This limits the ability to fully capture the lived experiences of individuals facing stigma and discrimination. Furthermore, the scope of the study is focused on India, limiting the generalizability of findings to other contexts. While the researchers acknowledge the influence of international politics and orientalist projections, a more detailed analysis of these factors could provide a richer understanding of the phenomenon. The lack of quantitative data on the extent of stigma and its impact on healthcare-seeking behavior represents another limitation. Future research should address these limitations by employing mixed-methods approaches that incorporate primary data collection and quantitative analysis.