Sports Performance and Breathing Rate: What Is the Connection? A Narrative Review on Breathing Strategies

The introduction situates breathing as a modulator of both physiological and psychological states relevant to athletic performance. Breathing can influence sympathetic vasoconstrictor activity and autonomic responses, yet relatively few studies have directly examined breathing techniques in sport contexts. Different breathing depths and frequencies are widely used across sports, but their specific connections to performance remain unclear. Evidence indicates voluntary control of breathing alters autonomic responses; respiratory frequency affects cardiovascular function; slow breathing reduces basal heart rate, orthostatic HR response, blood pressure, sympathetic activity during hypoxia, improves oxygenation and chemoreceptor function, and enhances exercise performance and baroreflex sensitivity. Fast breathing or high work of breathing increases alveolar ventilation up to ~20-fold, potentially impairing gas exchange and endurance, with expiratory flow limitations and diaphragm fatigue; it often raises blood pressure, heart rate, and sympathetic drive, though findings are mixed. The review aims to analyze breathing at different frequencies and depths to assess whether it is a valid strategy for optimal performance.

The narrative review synthesizes literature on slow-paced breathing (≤10 breaths/min, typically ~6 cpm) and fast-paced breathing (>20 breaths/min) and their physiological and psychological effects. Studies consistently show slow-paced breathing reduces sympathetic activity, lowers blood pressure, enhances heart rate variability (HRV), and improves baroreflex and cardiopulmonary function. HRV biofeedback (HRVB) leveraging slow breathing is reported to improve stress, anxiety, depression, cognition, fibromyalgia symptoms, cravings, executive functions, and potentially sports performance. Evidence on fast-paced breathing indicates activation of the sympathetic nervous system, increased heart rate and blood pressure, reduced CO2 leading to symptoms of alkalosis, and potential decrements in endurance and coordination; however, some controlled fast-breathing techniques may acutely enhance oxygen delivery and aspects of performance (strength, speed, reaction time). Practical frameworks for applying breathing strategies before, during, and after exercise are discussed. Overall, the literature suggests potential benefits of slow breathing for performance-related physiology and psychology, with less conclusive and context-dependent effects of fast breathing.

A non-systematic narrative review was conducted to summarize evidence for clinicians, physiologists, psychologists, coaches, and off-field trainers regarding slow voluntary breathing (VSB) and fast voluntary breathing (VFB) in athletes. Definitions: slow breathing 4–10 breaths/min (0.07–0.16 Hz); fast breathing >20 breaths/min (>0.33 Hz). Average human respiratory rate considered: 10–20 breaths/min. Inclusion focused on human studies within these rate ranges; studies outside the ranges were excluded. Databases: Medline via PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science (WoS). Search terms: "breathing" OR "breathe" OR "lung volume" OR "voluntary respiration" OR "slow breathing" OR "fast breathing" AND "exercise" OR "athlete" OR "performance" OR "sports". Additional studies published in the last 10 years and relevant to the topic were included; the search was expanded to literature on normal respiratory physiology, cardiovascular, cardiorespiratory, and autonomic systems as the manuscript progressed. The review is organized into psychological and physiological perspectives for slow-paced breathing and fast-paced breathing, with brief introductions to normal physiology followed by effects on healthy humans and implications for athletic performance and practical application across training, competition, and recovery.

• Slow-paced breathing (VSB; ~6 cpm; defined 4–10 breaths/min) is associated with decreased sympathetic activity, modest reductions in blood pressure, enhanced HRV, improved baroreflex sensitivity and function, and benefits to cardiopulmonary and neuroendocrine functions. Psychological benefits include reduced stress, anxiety, and arousal; improved resilience and executive functions; and potential improvements in sports performance.
• Fast-paced breathing (VFB; >20 breaths/min) typically activates the sympathetic nervous system, increases heart rate and blood pressure, reduces arterial CO2 leading to respiratory alkalosis and related symptoms (lightheadedness, dizziness, tingling), vasoconstriction and potentially decreased cerebral and muscular perfusion, with possible decrements in endurance, coordination, and balance. Some studies report no autonomic/cardiovascular changes after fast breathing practice, and certain controlled fast-breathing strategies may acutely increase oxygen delivery to muscles and improve strength, speed, reaction time, and abdominal muscle tone.
• The respiratory system during intense exercise may experience high work of breathing, expiratory flow limitations, and diaphragm fatigue, contributing to impaired gas exchange and decreased endurance performance. Alveolar ventilation can increase ~20-fold over resting levels during heavy exercise.
• Practical applications: Before exercise, slow deep breathing may enhance oxygenation, relaxation, focus, and posture; fast breathing may prime sympathetic activation when higher arousal is desired. During exercise, steady controlled rhythmic or diaphragmatic breathing supports oxygen delivery and CO2 elimination, heart rate regulation, and concentration. After exercise, slow deep breathing aids recovery, heart rate reduction, relaxation, and posture.
• Overall, evidence favors VSB for both physiological and psychological support of performance, while the role of VFB is context-dependent with more limited and mixed evidence.

The review integrates physiological and psychological literature to address how breathing rate influences sports performance. Slow-paced breathing aligns with parasympathetic activation, supporting cardiovascular efficiency, autonomic regulation (HRV, baroreflex), and psychological readiness (reduced anxiety, improved focus and executive function), thereby potentially enhancing performance and recovery. Fast-paced breathing generally aligns with sympathetic activation and hyperventilation-related physiology, which can impair endurance and coordination and induce anxiety and alkalosis symptoms if not deliberately controlled; yet, in specific contexts, controlled rapid breathing may transiently enhance arousal and certain performance aspects. Given interindividual variability and sport-specific demands, optimal breathing strategies should be tailored: controlled, rhythmic breathing to ensure oxygen delivery and CO2 elimination, heart rate regulation, and concentration during exercise; slow breathing for recovery and mental regulation; rapid breathing for pre-performance arousal when appropriate. The relationship remains complex with a paucity of definitive performance data, emphasizing the need for individualized, context-aware application and further research.

Breathing plays a meaningful role in athletic performance but current evidence is insufficient to draw definitive conclusions about optimal breathing rates across sports and contexts. Athletes may benefit from practicing controlled breathing during training and competition to support mental and physical well-being, focus, and goal attainment. Maintaining a consistent, controlled respiratory rate during exercise can ensure adequate oxygen supply, efficient waste elimination, heart rate regulation, and improved focus—key elements of peak performance. Slow-paced breathing appears broadly beneficial; fast-paced breathing should be applied judiciously and contextually. Further research is needed to clarify mechanisms, performance impacts, and best practices across sports and athlete populations.

As a non-systematic narrative review, the paper cannot definitively establish causal relationships between breathing strategies and sports performance. Limitations include variability among studies in sample sizes, intervention durations, involvement of breathing professionals, and consistency of performance outcomes. Evidence for slow breathing’s positive physiological and psychological effects is more consistent than for fast breathing, whose impacts are unclear. The defined breathing rate ranges may exclude relevant studies outside those thresholds. These limitations suggest avenues for future investigation, including controlled trials, sport-specific protocols, and mechanistic studies.