Sport-gender stereotypes and their impact on impression evaluations

People frequently differentiate among genders and form notions about typical traits and behaviors, reflected in gender stereotypes. Sports are a domain where these stereotypes are salient; many sports are socially categorized as masculine (e.g., football, basketball) or feminine (e.g., dance, gymnastics). China’s distinctive gender culture, influenced by Confucian norms and contemporary social roles, provides a unique context to examine sport-gender stereotypes (SGS) and their effects on impression evaluations, a topic underexplored quantitatively in the Global South. Existing Chinese research has largely identified the presence of gender stereotypes across domains (e.g., names, food) but rarely tested their explicit and implicit effects in sports. This study investigates whether SGS in China affect impression evaluations at explicit and implicit levels, how evaluator and target genders interact with stereotype (in)consistency, and how SGS effects compare with general gender stereotypes. Hypotheses: H1—SGS influence impression evaluations explicitly and implicitly, with stereotype-consistent males and stereotype-inconsistent females perceived as more masculine, and vice versa; H2—there is a three-way interaction among participant gender, target gender, and stereotype (in)consistency; H3—SGS differ from general gender stereotypes in their influence on impression evaluation at both levels.

Gender as a social structure: Gender is socially constructed through institutions (family, school, peers), which reinforce gender roles that become internalized and transmitted, forming rigid gender stereotypes. Explicit (directly measured) and implicit (indirect, past-experience-driven) gender stereotypes both shape attitudes and behaviors, often making gender a dominant cue in evaluations (e.g., higher ratings for male-named instructors; hiring biases). Global data show widespread implicit associations linking science with men. In the Global South, gendered labor patterns and inequalities persist. A global perspective is needed to understand gender in diverse contexts.

Gender stereotypes and their impact in China: China’s low ranking on the Gender Gap Index and Confucian-influenced gender norms (e.g., “men outside, women inside”) shape gender role expectations. Gender stereotypes influence impression evaluations, often eliciting resistance to counterstereotypical individuals. In China, explicit stereotypes often ascribe competence to men and warmth to women; implicit inequalities persist (e.g., men viewed as superior; differential implicit evaluations of leaders). Both stereotype users and targets are affected.

Sport-gender stereotypes and impression evaluations: Sports are historically male-dominated, with hegemonic masculinity shaping participation and perceptions. Sports perceived as strength/power-laden are masculinized; aesthetic sports are feminized. Research (mainly in the Global North) shows explicit and implicit SGS affecting participation and evaluations, with gender and age differences. In China, masculinity is conceptualized as “hardness-softness” and “Wenwu,” suggesting non-dichotomous gender traits; yet males remain more active than females, raising questions about SGS persistence and effects. Prior Chinese studies indicated name-sport associations and implicit SGS, but comprehensive explicit/implicit evaluation effects and comparisons to general stereotypes are limited.

The present studies: A pilot study identified gender-typed sports and attribute adjectives. Study 1 examined explicit SGS effects on impression evaluations and differences from general gender stereotypes. Study 2 assessed implicit SGS via IAT and compared with general gender stereotypes.

Pilot study (materials identification): Two phases with Chinese college students identified gender-typed sports and gendered attribute adjectives.

• Participants: n1=207 (118 female; Mage=19.36, SD=1.66) rated sports; n2=185 (103 female; Mage=19.18, SD=1.46) rated adjectives. All right-handed, normal/corrected vision, informed consent.
• Procedures:
  1. Gender-typed sports nomination and evaluation: 41 sports screened; participants rated suitability (-5 to +5) for typical male/female names (Yu Minghui, Fan Kunhong; Du Huimin, Wang Yuexuan). Top 4 rated as masculine: football (4.26±0.08), basketball (3.04±0.09), wrestling (2.02±0.07), running (2.01±0.08). Bottom 4 (feminine): artistic gymnastics (-2.33±0.09), gymnastics (-1.76±0.10), ice dance (-1.15±0.09), synchronized swimming (-1.13±0.08).
  2. Attribute adjectives nomination and evaluation: 16 masculine and 17 feminine adjectives screened; rated on -5 to +5. Masculine: virile (1.74±0.25), doughty (1.11±0.24), brave (1.10±0.23), stouthearted (1.09±0.21). Feminine: beautiful (-0.73±0.29), tender (0.52±0.26), missish (-0.31±0.24), virtuous (-0.24±0.25).
• Output: Constructed sport-gender stereotype (SGS) questionnaire combining names, sports, and adjectives (7-point consistency rating) to assess explicit SGS; also derived a general gender stereotype (GGS) questionnaire by removing sports.

Study 1a (explicit SGS effects):

• Participants: n=192 (102 female; Mage=19.00, SD=0.71), right-handed, consented.
• Design: 2 (participant gender: male/female) × 2 (target gender: male/female, within) × 2 (stereotype: consistent/inconsistent, between). DVs: ratings of masculine and feminine traits (from curated adjective sets) for each target description (e.g., “Yu Minghui likes playing basketball” vs “Fan Kunhong likes artistic gymnastics”). Counterbalanced order.
• Materials: SGS questionnaire from pilot.
• Procedure: Complete questionnaire; compensation provided.
• Analysis: Repeated-measures ANOVA on masculine and feminine trait evaluations.

Study 1b (explicit SGS vs GGS comparison):

• Participants: n=203 (95 female; Mage=20.30, SD=2.12), right-handed, consented.
• Design: 2 (participant gender) × 2 (target gender, within) × 2 (stereotype type: SGS vs GGS, between). DV: difference scores (male targets: masculine minus feminine; female targets: feminine minus masculine).
• Materials: GGS questionnaire (sports removed; same names and adjectives).
• Procedure: Complete GGS questionnaire; compensation provided.
• Analysis: Paired t-tests for directional checks; repeated-measures ANOVA comparing SGS vs GGS under consistent and inconsistent conditions.

Study 2a (implicit SGS effects via IAT):

• Participants: n=61 (35 female; Mage=19.57, SD=1.65), right-handed, consented.
• Design: 2 (participant gender, between) × 2 (target gender, within) × 2 (stereotype: consistent/inconsistent, within). DV: reaction times (ms) in IAT blocks pairing target-sport statements with gendered traits.
• Materials: Two IATs (male-target and female-target versions) built in E-Prime 2.0, 7-block structure (20-trial practices; 40-trial tests). Examples: “Yu Minghui enjoys boxing/gymnastics” paired with brave/beautiful; blocks 4 and 7 served as critical test blocks reflecting (in)consistency.
• Procedure: Each participant completed both target-gender IATs about one week apart; order counterbalanced. Instructions emphasized speed and accuracy; practice trials gave error feedback; test blocks did not. Compensation provided.
• Analysis: Repeated-measures ANOVA on RTs.

Study 2b (implicit SGS vs GGS comparison via IAT D scores):

• Participants: n=42 (22 female; Mage=19.25, SD=1.25), right-handed, consented. (Joint analyses also report subgroup sizes for D-score comparisons; descriptive table shows larger N from pooled tasks: GGS male n=20, female n=22; SGS male n=26, female n=35.)
• Design: 2 (participant gender) × 2 (stereotype type: SGS vs GGS), between-group. DV: IAT D score.
• Materials: GGS IAT analogous to SGS IAT, pairing masculine/feminine names with trait categories under a 7-block criterion.
• Procedure: Same IAT procedure as 2a; compensation provided.
• Analysis: Two-way ANOVA on D scores.

Pilot study:

• Confirmed the existence of sport-gender stereotypes among Chinese college students. Identified masculine sports (football 4.26±0.08; basketball 3.04±0.09; wrestling 2.02±0.07; running 2.01±0.08) and feminine sports (artistic gymnastics -2.33±0.09; gymnastics -1.76±0.10; ice dance -1.15±0.09; synchronized swimming -1.13±0.08). Identified masculine adjectives (virile, doughty, brave, stouthearted) and feminine adjectives (beautiful, tender, missish, virtuous).

Study 1a (explicit SGS effects):

• Masculine trait evaluation:
  • Main effect of target gender: male targets > female targets (F(1,190)=28.251, p<0.001, ηp²=0.129).
  • Main effect of stereotype consistency: consistent > inconsistent (F(1,190)=5.535, p=0.02, ηp²=0.028).
  • Target gender × stereotype interaction significant (F(1,190)=398.282, p<0.001, ηp²=0.667).
  • Three-way interaction (participant gender × target gender × stereotype) significant (F(1,190)=7.062, p=0.009, ηp²=0.036). Simple effects: stereotype-consistent male targets rated more masculine than inconsistent; stereotype-inconsistent female targets rated more masculine than consistent. Male participants gave higher masculinity ratings than female participants for consistent male targets and inconsistent female targets.
• Feminine trait evaluation:
  • Main effect of target gender: female targets > male targets (F(1,190)=79.287, p<0.001, ηp²=0.294).
  • Target gender × stereotype interaction significant (F(1,190)=413.92, p<0.001, ηp²=0.685). Inconsistent males rated higher on feminine traits than consistent males; consistent females rated higher on feminine traits than inconsistent females.
• Interpretation: Consistent targets are seen as more gender-typical; inconsistent targets show elevated opposite-gender traits (especially women show reversal in masculinity ratings when engaging in masculine sports).

Study 1b (explicit SGS vs GGS):

• Directional checks (paired t-tests) showed evaluations align with target gender under both GGS and SGS. Notably, when SGS were inconsistent for female targets, masculine traits (5.11±1.08) exceeded feminine traits (3.35±1.12), p<0.001, indicating reversal.
• Consistent condition: Significant stereotype type × target gender interaction (F(1,391)=98.035, p<0.001, ηp²=0.200). Adding sports increased perceived masculinity for male targets (SGS 2.98±0.11 > GGS 1.78±0.11, p<0.001) and decreased femininity for female targets (SGS 1.24±0.13 < GGS 2.03±0.13, p<0.001). Stereotype type × participant gender interaction: only male participants showed stronger trait differentiation with sports (2.18±0.14 vs 1.70±0.13, p=0.013).
• Inconsistent condition: Main effects of target gender (F(1,391)=30.930, p<0.001), stereotype type (GGS 1.91±0.10 > SGS -1.07±0.10; F(1,391)=424.703, p<0.001, η²=0.521), and participant gender (F(1,391)=4.198, p=0.041). Target gender × stereotype type interaction (F(1,391)=61.412, p<0.001) and three-way interaction (F(1,391)=3.943, p=0.048). Both male and female participants judged counterstereotypical sports as weakening targets’ gender-typical traits relative to GGS baselines; harsher for women.

Study 2a (implicit SGS effects via IAT):

• Main effect of stereotype consistency: faster responses for consistent (637.87±14.98 ms) vs inconsistent (931.38±23.48 ms) pairings (F(1,58)=258.409, p<0.001, ηp²=0.817).
• Three-way interaction (participant gender × target gender × stereotype) significant (F(1,58)=6.265, p=0.015, ηp²=0.097). Both genders responded faster to consistent vs inconsistent pairings for both male and female targets. Female participants were faster than males for consistent male stereotypes (624.97±22.50 vs 653.64±26.62, p=0.003). Female participants’ responses to inconsistent male stereotypes were faster than to inconsistent female stereotypes (867.24±33.06 vs 961.69±36.67, p=0.008); no such difference for male participants.

Study 2b (implicit SGS vs GGS via IAT D scores):

• Main effect of stereotype type: GGS showed higher D scores than SGS (GGS 1.10±0.04 vs SGS 0.70±0.03), F(1,98)=58.032, p<0.001, η²=0.372. No significant effects of participant gender or interaction.

Overall:

• H1 supported: SGS affect impression evaluations at explicit and implicit levels; consistent targets are seen as more gender-typical; inconsistency produces opposite-gender trait elevation and slower implicit associations.
• H2 supported: There are gender differences in evaluators and targets; three-way interactions observed.
• H3 supported: SGS and GGS differ; explicitly, adding sports intensifies masculinity and can reverse evaluations (especially for women in inconsistent conditions); implicitly, sports reduce the strength of gender-trait associations (lower D scores), suggesting a buffering effect.

Findings demonstrate that sport-gender stereotypes shape impression evaluations in China. Explicitly, stereotype-consistent targets are judged as more aligned with gender-typical traits, while inconsistent targets receive elevated opposite-gender trait attributions, with especially harsh reversal effects for women performing masculine sports. Implicitly, participants associate consistent pairings more quickly than inconsistent ones, indicating cognitive ease for stereotype-congruent information and conflict for counterstereotypical cases. Evaluator and target gender jointly influence outcomes: men tended to accentuate gender differences explicitly; women showed distinct response patterns implicitly (e.g., faster processing of consistent male stereotypes and greater conflict for inconsistent female targets). Comparing SGS to general gender stereotypes revealed domain-specific dynamics: adding sports cues amplified masculinity in explicit judgments and weakened femininity for women under consistent conditions; under inconsistent conditions, both genders judged targets as less appropriate than GGS baselines. Conversely, at the implicit level, SGS produced lower D scores than GGS, suggesting sports can buffer automatic gender-trait associations. These results align with social role and stereotype maintenance theories and illustrate descriptive-to-prescriptive shifts: violations of expected gendered sports elicit resistance and compensatory judgments. The study advances understanding of how specific social domains (sports) modulate gender stereotyping processes in a Global South context.

Sport-gender stereotypes in China are robust and influence impression evaluations at both explicit and implicit levels. Consistent targets are attributed more gender-typical traits, whereas inconsistent targets receive opposite-gender trait attributions and, for women, particularly negative reversals. Evaluator and target gender interact with stereotype (in)consistency, evidencing nuanced gendered dynamics. Compared with general gender stereotypes, sports cues increase perceived masculinity explicitly and, implicitly, attenuate the strength of gender-trait associations, indicating a buffering role. The work highlights the need to avoid differential treatment based on sport choice and suggests that gender should not hinder participation or evaluation. Future research should broaden populations beyond college students, enhance ecological validity with richer stimuli and paradigms, and integrate cognitive neuroscience to uncover mechanisms.

• Sample restricted to Chinese college students and college-age targets, limiting generalizability across ages, populations (e.g., children, adolescents, athletes, working adults), and cultures. Potential cohort and generational effects may alter stereotypes.
• Implicit measures relied on word-based IATs; ecological validity is limited relative to real-world evaluations. Richer modalities (images, videos, VR) and diverse implicit measures (IRAP, GNAT) are needed.
• Mechanistic explanations bridging explicit and implicit processes remain underdeveloped; further integration with cognitive neuroscience (ERPs, fMRI) is warranted.
• Outcome scope focused on gender-trait evaluations; broader consequences (behavior, decisions, discrimination) were not directly tested.