Science diplomacy as a foreign policy tool for Turkey and the ramifications of collaboration with the EU

As an emerging market economy and a candidate country for EU membership, Turkey has engaged in large-scale international science and research programs and organizations in Europe since the 1950s, and more intensely after its candidacy status commenced at the end of 1999. These engagements, which can be framed as Science Diplomacy (SD) efforts, were motivated by the Turkish government's perception that Turkey needs to become more integrated with the European countries, and must stay abreast of the science and technology developments or risk falling behind other EU candidate countries. The primary purpose of this paper is to explore how the emerging concept of SD helps explain transformations and changes in Turkish Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) policies since 2000, with a special focus on engagements with the EU's science and research programs and European organizations, and subsequently filling a gap in related literature. Europeanization and qualitative content analysis are used as theoretical framework and methodology, respectively, to analyze these engagements. The key findings and conclusions point out that Turkey's efforts to harmonize its science and technology policies with the EU's has paved the way for new funding mechanisms and its participation in Horizon 2020 as an associated country. In addition, using Science and Technology (S&T) cooperation as a soft power has strengthened the public diplomacy of Turkey with the European countries. As a result, increased involvement in STI partnerships with the European countries could help Turkey open new venues for developing its SD. However, despite the mutual economic and political benefit gained through scientific interactions, Turkey is still not using science as a diplomacy tool as effectively as it might to augment its foreign policy. It should be noted that research is one of the very few areas where the relations Turkey and the EU are still cooperating, regardless of growing tensions between the two parties. Thus, Framework Programs and other scientific projects that Turkey has participated in can provide founding experiences of Turkish SD with the EU, and may help Turkey open new venues for developing its SD. Nevertheless, a more resolute political will is needed.