Pet attachment and prosocial attitude toward humans: the mediating role of empathy to animals

The study is grounded in attachment theory, which posits coordinated attachment and caregiving behavioral systems that shape internal working models (IWMs) of self and others and foster empathy and prosociality. Prior work shows secure human attachment relates to greater empathy and prosocial behavior, with empathy often mediating this link. Pets can function as attachment figures (secure base, safe haven), suggesting similar mechanisms may operate in human-animal interactions (HAI). The research question tests whether empathy toward animals mediates the relationship between pet attachment and prosocial attitudes toward humans. The study’s purpose is to extend attachment-based explanations of prosociality from human-human to human-animal contexts, particularly relevant as pets are increasingly integrated into family systems and as prosociality dynamics were salient during the COVID-19 period. The hypotheses: (1) pet attachment positively associates with prosocial attitudes; (2) pet attachment positively associates with animal empathy; (3) animal empathy positively associates with prosocial attitudes; (4) animal empathy mediates the pet attachment–prosocial attitude link.

A substantial literature links secure attachment to increased prosocial behavior in children and adolescents, supported by systematic reviews and meta-analyses (e.g., Costa Martins et al., 2022; Deneault et al., 2023). Within HAI, pet attachment correlates with children’s prosocial outcomes and related psychosocial benefits (Christian et al., 2020; Hawkins et al., 2017; Li, 2022; Zhou et al., 2010). Studies suggest empathy is a key mechanism: stronger attachment relates to greater empathy, which predicts prosocial actions (Thompson & Gullone, 2008; Schoeps et al., 2020; Pan et al., 2022). Engagement with pets can increase dispositional empathy and consequently prosocial behaviors, particularly when pets are viewed as companions (Wice et al., 2020). Empathy extends to animals and relates to human-directed empathy (Stoeckel et al., 2014; Vanutelli & Balconi, 2015; Gómez-Leal et al., 2021). Attachment theory explains how interactions with attachment figures shape IWMs that promote empathy and caregiving tendencies; thus, pet attachment may cultivate animal empathy, which could generalize to human-directed prosocial attitudes. This led to testing animal empathy as a mediator between pet attachment and prosocial attitudes toward humans.

Design and sample: Cross-sectional survey of 343 Filipino participants, predominantly single female young adults with college education, focusing on dog and cat owners. Data were collected toward the later stages of COVID-19 restrictions in the rural province of Nueva Ecija, Philippines. Measures: (1) Contemporary Companion Animal Bonding Scale (CCABS; 8 items, 5-point Likert) for pet attachment; higher scores indicate stronger attachment. Internal consistency in this study α=0.73; prior dimensions include emotional bond, physical proximity, and caretaking. CFA fit indices in this sample indicated CFI=0.73, TLI=0.62, RMSEA=0.18. (2) Animal Empathy Scale (AES; 22 items, 9-point Likert; some items reverse-scored) for empathy toward animals; higher scores reflect greater animal empathy; α=0.66 in this study (previously 0.78–0.87). (3) Prosocialness Scale for Adults (PSA; 16 items, 5-point Likert, mean score) measuring adult prosocial attitudes (sharing, helping, caring, empathic concern); α=0.91 in this study (original α≈0.95). Procedure: Ethics approval obtained (CLSU ERC Code: 2022-323). Informed consent administered. Surveys were conducted via paper-and-pencil and online (Google Forms). Participants first completed consent and demographics (age, sex, year level, relationship status, number and type of pets, cohabitation with closest pet) and were instructed to consider their closest pet while responding. Instruments were administered in English. Data cleaning excluded cases not meeting inclusion criteria and those with missing scale data; more missingness occurred in paper formats. Analysis: SPSS used to check assumptions (normality, linearity, homoscedasticity), compute descriptive statistics, and correlations. Mediation analysis employed Hayes PROCESS Macro Model 4 with bootstrapping to estimate indirect effects of pet attachment on prosocial attitude via animal empathy. Raw scores were analyzed.

Descriptive statistics: Pet attachment M=31.39, SD=4.64; Animal empathy M=139.19, SD=15.50; Prosocial attitude M=4.02, SD=0.57. Bivariate correlations indicated significant positive associations among all variables: pet attachment with animal empathy r=0.22, p<0.001; pet attachment with prosocial attitude r=0.25, p<0.001; animal empathy with prosocial attitude r=0.24, p<0.001. Simple linear regression: Pet attachment significantly predicted prosocial attitude, explaining 6.5% of its variance (R²=0.065), F(1,341)=23.553, p<0.001; unstandardized B=0.031, standardized Beta=0.254, t=4.853, p<0.001. Mediation (PROCESS Model 4): Path a (pet attachment → animal empathy): β=0.74, p<0.001. Path b (animal empathy → prosocial attitude): β=0.007, p<0.001. Indirect effect (ab)=0.0058, p<0.001, indicating a significant mediation. The mediation accounted for an estimated 20.9% of the variance in prosocial attitude. Total effect of pet attachment on prosocial attitude: β=0.028, p<0.001; direct effect controlling for mediator: β=0.0312, p<0.001, indicating partial mediation by animal empathy.

Findings support the hypothesized model: pet attachment relates positively to prosocial attitudes toward humans, pet attachment relates to animal empathy, and animal empathy relates to prosocial attitudes. Mediation analysis indicates that empathy toward animals partially mediates the pet attachment–prosocial attitude link. This extends attachment-based models of prosociality into HAI, suggesting that attachment to pets can cultivate empathetic processes that generalize to human-directed social attitudes. While effects are statistically significant, magnitudes are modest, echoing that multiple mechanisms likely underlie prosociality. Attachment theory and caregiving behavioral system (CBS) accounts suggest that beyond empathy, recognition of distress and learned caregiving scripts can promote prosocial responses. The partial mediation implies other facets of the pet–owner bond (e.g., attachment orientations, caregiving experiences) may also contribute. The results align with prior work demonstrating empathy as a mediator in human-human contexts and add evidence that animal-directed empathy connects to human-directed prosocial attitudes, highlighting shared socio-emotional mechanisms across species interactions.

This study demonstrates that stronger attachment to pets is associated with higher empathy toward animals and, in turn, with greater prosocial attitudes toward humans, with animal empathy partially mediating the association. The work extends attachment theory to human-animal interaction by identifying a socio-emotional pathway from pet attachment to human-directed prosociality. Practical implications include the potential of animal-assisted interventions and educational initiatives that cultivate empathy toward animals to foster broader prosocial attitudes. Future research should refine measurement of animal empathy (including cognitive components and culturally adapted tools), explore additional mediators (e.g., attachment orientations within the pet bond, caregiving experiences), and examine bidirectional links between empathy for humans and animals, using more diverse samples and methodologies.

Limitations include reliance on an animal empathy scale with potentially inadequate psychometric performance in Southeast Asian contexts and limited assessment of cognitive empathy; exclusive focus on attachment strength as a predictor may overlook other HAI factors such as attachment orientations; a relatively homogeneous and potentially biased sample (predominantly Filipino young adult pet owners) limiting generalizability; and the use of self-reported measures, which may introduce response bias. The CFA indices for the CCABS indicated suboptimal fit in this sample. Future work should develop and validate culturally appropriate measures (including cognitive empathy), incorporate broader HAI variables, diversify samples, and triangulate self-reports with other data sources.