Non-invasive brain stimulation in cognitive sciences and Alzheimer's disease

Over the last four decades, non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has gained traction in cognitive science and dementia care for probing brain function and enhancing residual cognition. This review outlines physiological and technical mechanisms and clinical applications of major NIBS modalities—transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), transcranial electrical stimulation (tES), and transcranial ultrasound stimulation (TUS)—highlighting their roles in cognitive neuroscience and neurorehabilitation, especially in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Evidence suggests NIBS can modulate neural networks, support individualized neuromodulation strategies, and potentially improve cognitive outcomes when integrated within multidisciplinary, translational care frameworks.