Kashmiri women in conflict: a feminist perspective

The paper situates Kashmiri women within the 75-year geopolitical conflict over Jammu and Kashmir, marked by wars, insurgency, and heavy militarization. It underscores that while the region’s politics and history have been studied extensively, the gendered dimensions—women’s injuries, disappearances of male family members, sexual violence, displacement, domestic violence, and socioeconomic marginalization—remain underexplored. Framed through feminist theory, the study aims to understand Kashmiri women’s suffering, agency, and activism, arguing that women are not only victims but also political actors whose inclusion is crucial to any sustainable peace process. The authors seek to synthesize disparate literatures to highlight both violations and women’s resistance, thus filling gaps in conflict and gender discourse on Kashmir.

The review draws on feminist international relations and conflict studies to argue that war and gender relations are mutually constitutive, with patriarchy and militarization intensifying women’s insecurity. It synthesizes global evidence of conflict-related sexual violence (e.g., Rwanda, former Yugoslavia, DRC) and connects these patterns to Kashmir, where women face abuses by both state and non-state actors. Key feminist perspectives (Enloe, Cockburn, Tickner, Sjoberg and Gentry) inform analyses of honor, militarized masculinities/femininities, and the need for women’s participation in peace processes (UNSC 1325). In Kashmir, the literature documents widespread sexual violence, impunity, and stigma; enforced disappearances producing “half widows”; domestic violence and mental health impacts; economic dispossession; educational disruption; political underrepresentation; and emergent activism. It also addresses sexual violence by militant groups, coercive social controls (e.g., purdah enforcement), and the complex interplay of patriarchy, religion, nationalism, and occupation. Subsections survey: rape as weapon and state impunity (e.g., Kunan-Poshpora); militant-perpetrated abuses and “forced marriages”; half widows and mass graves; domestic violence trends and legal frameworks; women’s economic roles, microfinance and entrepreneurship; education gaps and barriers; women’s political participation and leadership; human rights activism (e.g., APDP, journalists, writers); women’s facilitative roles in militancy; and the evolution and contestations within Kashmiri feminism, including critiques of Indian feminist discourses and calls for local, intersectional feminist praxis.

The study employs a traditional narrative literature review of secondary sources to examine the plight and agency of Kashmiri women from a feminist perspective. Using a thematic structure, it interprets and synthesizes contemporary scholarship, reports, and testimonies to provide a comprehensive, critical overview of key concepts, events, actors, debates, and gaps. The approach is qualitative, flexible, and exploratory, not bound by rigid inclusion criteria, allowing incorporation of heterogeneous evidence (academic works, NGO and UN reports, media, legal documents). It foregrounds feminist theories to illuminate gendered power relations and documents human rights violations (displacement, disappearances, patriarchy, domestic violence, rape/sexual assault), identifies perpetrators (state and non-state), highlights activism and political participation, and examines constraints in education and economics. The method privileges depth of interpretation over statistical generalization, acknowledging the value of qualitative insight into experiences that are often invisible in conflict zones.

• Conflict-related sexual violence and impunity: Reports document frequent, widespread sexual assaults, often by security forces as a counterinsurgency tactic; prosecutions are rare. Official data cited: 5,125 rape and 14,953 molestation cases reported across J&K over 24 years (statement, 2013). Médecins Sans Frontières (2006) survey (n=510) found 11.6% experienced sexual violence since 1989; 63.9% had heard of rape; approximately 1 in 7 had witnessed rape. NCRB data: 2020—243 rapes and 1,744 assaults on women in J&K; 2021—crimes against women up 15.6%; 315 rapes, 1,414 attempts to rape, 14 dowry deaths, 1,851 assaults on women; 91.4% of rape accused known to the victim; crime rate 61.6 per 100,000 population. Specific incidents include Kunan-Poshpora (1991) with at least 23 and possibly up to ~40 survivors; reports claim 882 rapes in 1992 by Indian forces (various sources). Stigma and social ostracism compound harms.
• Abuses by militant groups: Literature documents kidnappings, rape framed as “forced marriages,” extortion, and enforcement of restrictive “Islamic” codes; fear suppresses reporting and accountability.
• Enforced disappearances and “half widows”: Estimates suggest over 8,000 men disappeared since 1989; ~1,500 women identified as half widows. Investigations reported 2,940 bodies in 2,700 unmarked graves across 55 villages (1990–2009). Half widows face legal limbo (inheritance, property, banking), social stigma, and contested remarriage norms.
• Domestic violence and mental health: NFHS (2021) indicates 11% of married women in J&K experienced physical or sexual abuse; correlates with female suicide risk. Analyses (2012–2018) show VAW composition: molestation 35%, kidnapping 30.03%, domestic violence 11.9%. Rising reports of molestation and kidnapping (e.g., kidnapping: 42 in 2020; 83 in 2021; 116 in 2022). Braid-chopping incidents (2017) terrified and humiliated women.
• Economic marginalization: Conflict depresses industry, tourism, crafts, and agriculture; women assume breadwinner roles amid displacement, poverty, and predatory risks. Some empowerment via microfinance and self-help groups; evidence of positive impacts on women’s economic agency and entrepreneurship.
• Education: Despite expansion of institutions and programs (SSA, KGBV, BBBP), significant gender gaps persist; male literacy 78.26% vs female 58.01% (Department of School Education J&K). Barriers include insecurity, patriarchy, poverty, infrastructure deficits, school closures, and harassment.
• Political participation and activism: Women have historic roles in movements (e.g., WSDC) and leadership (e.g., Mehbooba Mufti as first woman CM in 2016). Activists (e.g., APDP’s Parveena Ahangar, journalists and writers) document abuses and mobilize for rights. However, women remain underrepresented, often mediated by male elites, and activism occurs amid risk.
• Feminist discourse: Kashmiri feminism is diverse and contested; scholars critique both state militarization and patriarchal social orders, and call for centering women’s experiences in peace processes (aligned with UNSC 1325).

Synthesizing heterogeneous evidence through a feminist lens, the review shows how militarization, insurgency, and entrenched patriarchy converge to produce layered insecurities for Kashmiri women—direct violence (rape, assault), structural harms (disappearances leading to legal/economic precarity), and socio-psychological trauma (stigma, ostracism). It addresses the research aim by foregrounding women’s lived experiences and agency alongside victimization, documenting both state and non-state perpetration and the systemic impunity that sustains abuses. The findings highlight that women’s security, education, and economic participation are interdependent with broader conflict dynamics; therefore, any sustainable resolution must incorporate women’s perspectives and leadership. The review underscores the significance of UNSC 1325 principles (protection, participation, gender mainstreaming) and demonstrates the relevance of women’s activism (APDP, journalists, writers, grassroots feminists) in reframing narratives from passive victimhood to political agency. It also illuminates the consequences of excluding women from negotiations: policies remain blind to gendered harms, perpetuating cycles of violence and undercutting peacebuilding effectiveness.

This narrative review consolidates dispersed scholarship and documentation to foreground the multifaceted impacts of the Kashmir conflict on women and to recognize Kashmiri women’s resistance, activism, and political participation. It contributes a feminist synthesis that reframes women not merely as victims but as crucial stakeholders in peace and justice. The paper calls for: gender-sensitive peace processes with meaningful representation of Kashmiri women; implementation of legal reforms and accountability mechanisms to end impunity for sexual and gender-based violence; expansion of psychosocial support, legal aid, and rehabilitation for survivors, half widows, and displaced families; investment in girls’ education, safe learning environments, and anti-stigma campaigns; and economic empowerment via skills, finance, and market access. Future research should deepen intersectional, community-grounded studies across diverse groups (religion, ethnicity, class, rural/urban), employ mixed methods to address data gaps and underreporting, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions (legal, educational, economic), and document long-term outcomes of women’s inclusion in conflict resolution and governance.

As a traditional narrative literature review, the study relies on secondary sources and adopts flexible, subjective inclusion without a systematic protocol, which may introduce selection bias. Reliable statistics in conflict settings are scarce, and underreporting—especially of sexual violence due to stigma and fear—limits data accuracy. Political sensitivities and impunity further constrain verification. Consequently, while the synthesis is comprehensive, findings reflect the quality and availability of existing reports and may not capture all experiences or recent, localized variations.