Identification with Buddhism among young Chinese Indonesians: multicultural dynamics and generational transitions

The paper situates Buddhism in Indonesia as historically hybrid, shaped by Chinese, Southeast Asian, and local traditions. Following Indonesianization under the New Order, Chinese cultural elements in Buddhism were suppressed, then reemerged after 1998 with multicultural reforms. Young Chinese Indonesians grow up amid intertwined traditions (Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Catholicism) and Chinese cultural practices, yielding unique modes of identification with Buddhism distinct from older generations. The study addresses a gap in quantitative analyses of youth identification trends, which limits detection of broader patterns and policy-relevant correlations. The objective is to use a mixed-methods, quantitatively grounded approach to measure current levels and determinants of identification with Buddhism among young Chinese Indonesians, focusing on six dimensions (identity, symbols, values, behavioral patterns, emotional engagement, perceptions), generational transitions (grandparents–parents–youth), and influences of education, parental occupation, age, and geography. It asks how identification varies across these dimensions and cohorts and what factors sustain or erode identification in a multicultural context.

The literature traces evolving Chinese Indonesian identity under shifting political regimes, from syncretic Taoist/Confucian practices to a Buddhist revival influenced by Dutch theosophists and Mahāyāna, followed by New Order pressures to de-Sinicize and rationalize Buddhism. Post-1998 reforms fostered multiculturalism, reauthorization of Chinese rituals, and greater religious flexibility; conversions and blends with Christianity and Islam occurred due to schooling and social pressures. Religion serves as a key marker of identity for Chinese Indonesians, with Buddhists largely of Chinese descent, yet stereotypes and discrimination persist alongside intergenerational declines in cultural identity. Historically, Buddhism arrived early, declined with Islam’s rise, then revived via Theosophical and Peranakan efforts; modern organizations (Walubi, Pemuda Buddha Indonesia, Buddhayāna) reconfigured practice (e.g., doctrinal focus, monotheistic language) and community cohesion. Contemporary identification is multidimensional: formal conversion (Ti-Sarana Gamana) coexists with "doing religion" through practice and experience. For youth, Buddhism’s appeal includes spirituality, moral values, and personal growth; modern symbols (music, media, publications) and practices (e.g., meditation) extend reach and align with global multiculturalism, positioning Buddhism as adaptive to modern needs.

Design: Mixed-methods study integrating a structured questionnaire and semistructured individual interviews. Research model conceptualizes identification with Buddhism across six dimensions: (1) Buddhist identity (formal/psychological identification), (2) identification with Buddhist symbols (attire, cuisine, cultural figures), (3) alignment with Buddhist values, (4) recognition of Buddhist behavioral patterns (rituals, lifestyles, activities), (5) emotional engagement (motivation to learn/practice), and (6) perceptions of Buddhism (impressions of monastics, activities, imagery). Intergenerational transmission assessed across grandparents, parents, and youths. Hypotheses posit positive associations between each dimension and overall identification (H1–H6), positive effects of grandparents’ and parents’ identification on youths (H7–H8), and influences of individual factors (parents’ occupation, region) (H9). Instruments: Questionnaire developed from validated scales (Phinney & Devich-Navarro, 1997; Hu et al., 2010; Abu-Rayya et al., 2009; Case & Chavez, 2017). Three sections: demographics; five-point Likert items covering six identification dimensions and three generational dimensions; open-ended items. Expert review and pilot (n=10) informed revisions. Interviews: Online semistructured interviews with an outline covering all six dimensions, generational transitions, and broader influences. Participants: Surveys distributed (2022–2023) across 33 Indonesian provinces via schools and universities. From >3000 project responses, 330 valid questionnaires for this study’s religion module were analyzed; 10 respondents completed follow-up interviews. Mean age 15; 97.87% <30 years; 96.06% are 3rd+ generation Chinese Indonesians. Measures: Reliability/validity assessed via Cronbach’s alpha (0.979), CFA with AVE>0.5 and CR>0.7 across nine dimensions, KMO=0.907, Bartlett’s p=0.000; standardized loadings >0.6, p<0.05. Analytic approach: Descriptive statistics; t tests for symbol categories; ANOVA for age, education, parental occupation, and regional differences; SEM (SPSSAU) to model generational evolution and the effects of dimensions on overall identification and generational decline.

Measurement properties: High reliability (alpha=0.979); CFA supported convergent validity (AVE>0.5; CR>0.7) for all six identification dimensions and three generational dimensions. Overall orientation: Mean scores for all six dimensions >3, indicating generally positive orientations toward Buddhism. Dimension means: Alignment with Buddhist values (mean 4.499) and recognition of Buddhist behavioral patterns (4.292) were highest; Buddhist identity, emotional engagement, and perceptions were moderate; identification with Buddhist symbols was lowest and most variable (SD=1.269). Identity indicators: Only 4% identified as devout Buddhists; 48.79% "I suppose so"; 8.48% "No." Cross-religious openness: 89.4% willing to date someone of another faith (vs prior report of 9% support for cross-religious marriage in Wang, 2006). Values: "Karma" most endorsed value; viewed as distinctly Buddhist and motivating virtuous conduct. Behavioral practices: Celebrating Buddhist festivals with family (e.g., Vesak, Ullambana) remains central; family visits to temples (e.g., Vihara Dharma Bhakti) emphasized. Symbols: Preference for modern Buddhist symbols over traditional ones; modern symbols mean 3.70±1.34 vs traditional 3.33±1.33; p=0.001. Difficulty distinguishing among Taoism/Buddhism/Confucianism noted, reflecting syncretic local practice (e.g., mixed deities in temples). Emotional engagement: Modern prominent figures (e.g., Bhante Atthadhiro, Master Hsing Yun) attract followers and motivate Dharma study. Perceptions and media: Average perceptions score 3.541; > two-thirds engage via new media (YouTube accounts, online sermons); interest in modern narratives and accessible books noted. Group differences (ANOVA): - Age: p=0.000. Identification lowest at 13–19 years (mean 3.79), higher at 6–12 (4.034), peaking at 20–30 (4.166), then slight decline >30 (3.877). - Education level: p=0.049; upward trend with higher education (overall ~6.99% increase from primary to master’s). - Parents’ occupation: p=0.000; highest identification among children of entrepreneurs/businesspeople; followed by laborers/farmers; lower among children of civil servants and company employees. Behavioral identification tended to be higher among children of company employees or laborers/farmers; interest in symbols higher among business and civil service families. - Regional differences: p=0.001; lowest overall identification in Java, highest in other archipelagos; significant disparities across emotional engagement, behavioral patterns, symbols, and identity. Generational transitions: Mean identification: grandparents 3.95, parents 3.87, youths 3.76; ANOVA p=0.018, indicating significant intergenerational decline. Decline rates varied by dimension: emotional engagement (−3.01%) and behavioral patterns (−3.06%) modest declines; symbols showed greater decline (−7.88%); alignment with values for youth remained >4, down 5.11% from grandparents. SEM results: - Alignment with Buddhist values and perceptions significantly counteract generational decline: +1.000 in values alignment offsets decline by 1.392 points; +1.000 in perceptions offsets decline by 0.619. Items reflecting belief in Buddha’s blessing/guidance correlate strongly with overall identification (r=0.865; r=0.793). - Family transmission matters: Higher grandparent/parent identification positively predicts youth identification. Each 1-point decrease in generational decline increases overall identification by 0.351. Decline between parents and children exerts the strongest effect, underscoring the family’s central role.

Findings indicate a more diverse, inclusive, and contemporary pattern of identification with Buddhism among young Chinese Indonesians than in previous generations. Blurred boundaries among identity, symbols, and values reflect hybrid religious-cultural landscapes; youth freely consume Buddhist media, seek blessings, and purchase religiously themed products, often in syncretic combinations. Modern media (online tutorials, music) and contemporary figures catalyze engagement. Regional and age-based disparities align with historical-cultural contexts: youth aged 20–30 matured during post-1998 multicultural revitalization, supporting stronger identification; other archipelagos and Jakarta’s diverse milieu show higher identification than Java, where Islamic/Javanese dominance may dampen Buddhist identification. Socioeconomic positioning via parental occupation shapes identification, with heightened identification at both ends (entrepreneurial risk/reward and lower-income reliance on religious community support). Despite overall declines across generations, family-based practices and values remain critical anchors: celebrating festivals and sharing values like karma help preserve identification. Crucially, alignment with Buddhist values and positive perceptions measurably counteract decline, suggesting interventions should prioritize value transmission and favorable representations. The results address the research aims by mapping six-dimensional identification, quantifying intergenerational dynamics, and highlighting individual and contextual influences, offering pathways to sustain identification within Indonesia’s multicultural setting.

Identification with Buddhism among young Chinese Indonesians comprises six positively associated dimensions (identity, symbols, values, behavioral patterns, emotional engagement, perceptions). Youth show strongest alignment with Buddhist values and behavioral patterns (e.g., family festival participation), while identification with symbols is lowest and increasingly modernized. Attitudes are open and inclusive, with many expressing affinity and interest rather than strict devout identity. Identification varies significantly by age, education, parents’ occupation, and region (highest among ages 20–30; higher with greater education; highest among children of entrepreneurs/businesspeople; lowest on Java, highest in other archipelagos). Intergenerational identification shows an overall decline from grandparents to parents to youth, but declines are modest for emotional engagement and behavioral patterns; values alignment and positive perceptions significantly offset decline. Familial identification (grandparents/parents) exerts a strong, positive influence, underscoring the family’s central role. To sustain and develop identification, strategies should broaden modern Buddhist symbols, strengthen family-centered cultural activities, and emphasize value transmission within diverse family contexts, building an inclusive, future-oriented multicultural identity that supports communal and national cohesion.

The sample comprises Chinese Indonesians enrolled in Chinese language courses who self-identify as having Chinese heritage, potentially limiting representativeness (e.g., excluding non–Chinese-language learners interested in Buddhism or learners with different religious views). The cross-sectional, passive survey design precludes causal inference and tracking temporal or regional changes. Findings do not account for broader policy, economic, and cultural trends that historically shape religious identities. Future research should adopt longitudinal designs, broaden geographic scope, include cross-cultural comparisons, analyze interreligious interactions, and assess impacts of globalization, migration, and cross-cultural exchange on youth religious identity and practice.