From fellow traveller to eco-warrior: the translation and reception of Thoreau in China

One of the most striking phenomena of American literary history has been the gradual growth of Thoreau's reputation, both domestically and internationally (Jiang et al., 2007, p. 1). No longer simply regarded as an obscure disciple of Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) has been labelled posthumously as "American's greatest philosopher", an "ecological writer", a "romantic naturalist" and "one of the few American writers of the nineteenth century who deserve the appellation 'great'" (Harding, 1995, p. 1). An indication of Thoreau's global appeal lies in the fact that the Thoreau Society, founded in 1941, recruits members from far beyond the borders of the United States. "It seems erroneous to claim that Thoreau is too quirkily and idiosyncratically American to appeal to foreign readers or his peculiar brand of American nativism has little international appeal" (Otterberg, 2017). The international reputation of Thoreau has been both mediated and boosted by numerous translations of his acknowledged masterpiece, Walden, into different languages. The last three decades have witnessed a surge of translations of Walden in China, with no fewer than 129 versions being published in Mandarin and one in Taiwanese. Most of them are still in print and some are forthcoming. For over three decades, the book has regularly featured in lists of recommended reading in China for both young and adult Chinese readers, and Thoreau/Walden-related literature produced by Chinese scholars diversifies in perspective and increases in number year by year.

The paper traces a century of Chinese critical engagement with Thoreau/Walden. Early scholarly reception (1920s–1970s) framed Thoreau primarily through socio-political lenses: Zheng Zhenduo (1926) and Zeng Xubai (1929) portrayed Thoreau as a radical activist whose civil disobedience critiqued U.S. politics; a 1978 textbook continued to cite him as emblematic of individual resistance to capitalism. Concurrently, other intellectuals emphasized spiritual and philosophical affinities with Chinese traditions. Yu Dafu (1933) read Walden as "recluse literature" rooted in Taoism, while Lin Yutang (1937) lauded Thoreau as the "most Chinese" of American authors, aligning Walden with Confucian and Taoist ideals such as Tianrenheyi (harmony between humanity and nature). Comparative studies in the 1980s–1990s (e.g., Chang Yaoxin 1985; Chen Changfang 1991; Cui Changqing 1994) catalogued Thoreau’s quotations from the Four Books and explored parallels with Laozi and Taoist reclusion. Debate intensified in the late 1990s: Cheng Yinghong (1996) questioned Thoreau’s authenticity as a hermit, while He Huaihong (1997) called for more rigorous biographical methods. Later scholars nuanced the narrative, arguing for hybridity rather than simple affinity: Yang Jincai (2004) stressed Thoreau’s active social engagement; Liu Luechang (2016) analyzed Thoreau’s adaptation of Chinese ideas for American audiences; some (Liu Yuyu 2009) noted misinterpretations of the Confucian classics, whereas others (Chen Xi 2014; Cheng Aimin 2009) emphasized worldview correspondences. Western scholarship has likewise moved from skepticism (Christy 1932; Cady 1961) to recognition of Eastern influence (Scott 2007; Weir 2011, 2019; Altman 2018). Overall, the literature records a shift in China from viewing Thoreau as either a political fellow traveler or a near-Chinese sage to understanding him as a culturally hybrid thinker whose ideas interweave Eastern and Western philosophies.

The study adopts a descriptive, diachronic approach to the translation and reception of Thoreau/Walden in China. It samples representative Chinese versions of Walden based on publication period and popularity, analyzing translators’ strategies, textual details, and paratexts (editor introductions, translator prefaces/postscripts/notes). It surveys recent Chinese scholarship and related eco-writings inspired by Walden. The analysis follows Hans Robert Jauss’s reception theory, reconstructing the "horizon of expectations" to understand how contemporaries might have perceived the text. Research questions: - What are the main translation strategies employed by representative Chinese versions, and what images of the book are constructed by these translations? - What images of Thoreau are portrayed, respectively, by the translators of Walden, literary scholars, and writers in China? - What are the various impacts of Thoreau/Walden on Chinese literary scholars and writers? - What possible reasons are there for the lasting popularity of Walden in China? Sampling notes: From at least 130 Chinese versions (Mainland, Hong Kong, Taiwan, 1949–July 2022; excluding reprints, anonymous versions, and anthology excerpts), four influential versions are closely analyzed: Xu Chi (first Chinese version 1949; revised as Wa’erdeng Hu with 1982/1993 editions and widespread reissues), Kong Fanyun (1984), Chen Bocang (1998, highly condensed and heavily commented), and Li Jihong (2013, annotated and teen-oriented positioning). Additional variant editions (annotated, adapted, excerpted, illustrated, juvenile) are noted to map diversification since the 1990s.

- Scale and trajectory of translation: At least 130 Chinese versions of Walden appeared between 1949 and July 2022; interest accelerates from the 1990s onward. Earlier note indicates at least 129 Mandarin versions plus one Taiwanese version in the past three decades, underscoring surge and sustained market presence. - Shifts in translation strategies: Early translations (e.g., Xu Chi, 1949) exhibit foreignized syntax mirroring English structures (excessive subjects/pronouns, preposed modifiers, heavy use of 的/底, and conjunctions), while later versions (e.g., Kong Fanyun, 1984/2010) domesticate syntax and cultural references for smoother target-language assimilation. - Diversification of translation types post-1990s: Beyond full translations, the market features annotated editions (e.g., Du Xianju 2015 based on Cramer 2006), condensed paraphrases (e.g., Chen Bocang 1998: ~6.5k Chinese characters vs. ~107k English words), editions with extensive commentary, adaptations (e.g., Luo/Wang 1996 based on Andrist), excerpted/juvenile editions (e.g., Huang Fuhai 2018 with illustrations). Xu Chi’s 1993 edition has been issued by over 18 publishers; Chen Bocang’s version was endorsed by 50+ Taiwanese academics. - Evolving images of Thoreau in translations: Early translators foreground Thoreau as a spiritual mentor/philosopher promoting simplicity, solitude, and harmony with nature (aligned with Chinese traditions). Twenty-first-century editions broaden portrayals to include pioneer of environmentalism, nature writing founder, advocate of simple living, with tags like "green bible" and "poetic dwelling" (e.g., Li Jihong 2013; Pan 2007; Zeng 2012; Du 2017). - Chinese scholarly reception across a century: Initial portrayals (1920s–1970s) emphasize political activism/anti-capitalist resistance; parallel strand stresses affinity with Confucian/Taoist thought and Taoist-style reclusion. From the 1990s, debate problematizes the reclusive image and highlights a hybrid integration of Eastern and Western ideas, with attention to Thoreau’s selective adaptation/misinterpretation of Chinese classics. - Influence on Chinese writers and eco-literature: Since the 1980s, Walden has served as a "green bible" for Chinese eco-writers. Notable figures include poets Hai Zi (praised Walden; wrote "Intelligent Thoreau"), Wei An (embraced Thoreau’s prose aesthetics; developed Thoreauvian eco-essays/poems like "Fruits" in dialogue with "The Bean-Field"), and Hua Hai (adopted eco-poetic stance in the 1990s). Thoreau’s role model status as "ecologist before ecology" catalyzed eco-writing in China through the 1990s peak. - Overall pattern: China’s reception broadly mirrors U.S. trends (from spiritual/moral guide and nature writer to environmentalist), yet diverges in its distinct emphasis on classical Chinese affinities, subsequent debates over authenticity and hybridity, and strong eco-literary uptake.

The findings address the research questions by demonstrating how translation strategies (foreignization to domestication; full to adapted/annotated forms) construct divergent images of Walden and Thoreau for Chinese audiences. Early translations and paratexts privileged Thoreau as a spiritual mentor aligned with Chinese notions of simplicity and harmony, shaping a reception consonant with indigenous philosophical traditions. Later editions diversified readerships and reframed Thoreau as an environmental precursor, aligning with contemporary ecological concerns and expanding interpretive horizons. Across translators, scholars, and writers, the images of Thoreau range from political activist and pastoral moralist to recluse-philosopher and eco-warrior. Scholarly debates since the 1990s have moved reception beyond simple affinity to a nuanced understanding of hybridity—how Thoreau incorporated and adapted Chinese elements to his American context. This helps explain Walden’s lasting popularity: it resonates with both traditional Chinese values and modern environmental consciousness, while its adaptable form and rich paratexts enable continuous reinterpretation for new audiences (e.g., students, general readers, eco-writers). The study contributes to reception and translation studies by showing how translators’ choices and paratexts mediate transnational literary authority, and how interactions among translators, scholars, and creative writers co-produce evolving cultural images that both mirror and diverge from source-culture receptions.

Otterberg (2017) noted that Thoreau would have lives beyond America; this study traces one such life in China across translators, scholars, and writers. Early Chinese translators (1940s–1980s) framed Thoreau through affinities with traditional Chinese philosophy, presenting him as a spiritual mentor of simple, meditative living. Later translations diversified (annotated, adapted, juvenile) and sometimes reframed his retreat more politically, in line with social activism and environmentalism. Chinese scholars, from early political readings (Zheng Zhenduo) to spiritual-affinity readings (Yu Dafu, Lin Yutang), have progressively emphasized the hybrid fusion of Eastern and Western ideas in Thoreau’s work. Contemporary Chinese writers, especially eco-writers like Hua Hai, Wei An, and Hai Zi, have absorbed and reworked Thoreau’s themes and styles into Chinese eco-literature. These strands intersect and influence each other: translations inform scholarship; scholarship and translations fuel creative reception. Ultimately, the evolving Chinese receptions return to core Thoreauvian concerns—the individual’s relation to society and nature—understood through continually reimagined cultural lenses. This study underscores the dynamic, layered nature of transnational literary reception and highlights how Walden’s adaptability sustains its enduring influence in China and beyond.

- Sampling scope: Close analysis focuses on a limited set of representative translations (not all 130), potentially biasing conclusions toward popular or widely circulated editions. - Data exclusions: The dataset omits reprints, anonymous translations, and many anthology excerpts, which may underrepresent certain translation practices or readerships. - Descriptive design: The study is primarily descriptive and reception-focused; it does not include systematic reader-response data or quantitative readership analytics. - Reliance on paratexts: Inferences about translator intent and constructed images rely heavily on prefaces, blurbs, and notes, which may be promotional or selective. - Temporal and regional coverage: Emphasis on developments since the 1990s may overshadow less-documented reception in earlier decades or regional variations across Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan.