Drawing places, recreating spaces: visual voices from at-risk children

The study examines whether children living in socioeconomically and culturally disadvantaged contexts possess and develop pictorial flexibility—the ability to deviate from canonical, stereotyped depictions to communicate distinct ideas visually. Within the broader context of resilience, drawing is positioned as a symbolic activity that can empower children, enabling meaning-making about their environments and experiences. The research leverages a contrastive drawing task (real house versus desired house) to probe: (1) if children aged 8–12 (later analyzed in groups 8–9, 10–11, 12–13) can effectively differentiate depictions of their current versus ideal living environments; and (2) how the number and type of pictorial differentiation strategies vary by age. The authors hypothesize that the contrastive task will elicit effective differentiation, with older children employing a greater number and more complex strategies than younger children.

Prior work indicates drawing is a powerful tool for children's meaning-making, offering insights into their perspectives across diverse populations and contexts. Studies have used thematic drawings to explore children's attachments to place and identities (Winnicott, Fried), the influence of architectural structures on well-being (Proshansky & Fabian), and children's conceptualizations of home and built environments (Matthews; Aysan & Oliver; Cherney et al.). Disaster-related research demonstrates children's drawings can reflect emotions, coping, and safety perceptions (Izadkhah & Gibbs; Kim on Hurricane Katrina). Case studies illustrate drawing as a bridge between cultural worlds and adaptation (Cameron et al.). In conflict-affected societies, children differentiate depictions of past versus present with visual indicators of hope and violence (Fargas-Malet & Dillenburger). Methodologically, contrastive pictorial tasks have been fruitful in eliciting diversified representations of relationships, self-image, and school life (Laghi et al.; Bombi & Cannoni; Pinto et al.). Theoretical accounts link flexibility to representational redescription (Karmiloff-Smith) and to environmental inputs, drawing experiences, and learning contexts (Burkitt et al.). However, children's intentional deviations from conventional building representations in ecological contexts, particularly among disadvantaged groups, are under-investigated, and prior communications are often descriptive rather than research-oriented, underscoring the need for rigorous study.

Design: Exploratory study using a contrastive drawing task to elicit pictorial flexibility about built environments (real vs. desired home). Participants: 200 children living in a Rio de Janeiro favela, Brazil; initially described as 8–12 years old; for analysis divided into age groups 8–9 (n=50), 10–11 (n=60), and 12–13 (n=62). Setting: Out-of-school educational center within the favela; ecological data collection context to preserve naturalistic conditions. Ethics: Parental and local authority approval; departmental approval (University of Florence). Procedure: Each child produced two drawings on white paper (21 × 29.7 cm) with a variety of materials: (a) their real/current house; (b) a house they would like to live in. Instructions emphasized ideas over artistic beauty; task order was counterbalanced across participants. Coding: 400 drawings (two per child) were independently coded by two judges, first for whether each pair allowed clear identification of real vs. ideal house (communicative efficacy: congruent vs. non-congruent/no differentiation), then for the number and type of pictorial differentiation strategies used across the pair. Six dichotomously scored strategies (0/1 per pair) were coded: (1) variations in number of parts/elements (house and background); (2) variations in number of colors; (3) variations in size (house height/width); (4) variations in number of decorative elements; (5) variations in architectural structure and function (scale from shack to palace; 1 if different categories); (6) variations in pictorial techniques (e.g., pencil vs. shading; 1 if different). Inter-rater agreement: 97%; discrepancies resolved by a third judge. Analysis: Pairs judged congruent (n=172) were analyzed for number of strategies employed. Order effects tested via ANOVA (order of task presentation vs. number of strategies). Associations between age groups and (a) number of strategies categories (≤2, up to 3, ≥4) and (b) types of strategies used were tested via chi-square analyses. Descriptive statistics included means of strategies per pair and frequencies of each strategy by age group.

• Communicative efficacy: Of 400 drawings, 86% were congruent pairs (viewer could clearly distinguish real vs. ideal house), 4% non-congruent, and 10% showed no differentiation. The 172 congruent pairs were retained for strategy analyses; 76% of eliminated drawings were from younger children. - Order effects: Non-significant effect of presentation order on number of strategies, F(1,170)=0.09, p=n.s. - Number of strategies by age (chi-square significant): Association between age group and number of strategies used, χ²(2)=191.19, p<0.001. • 8–9 years: predominantly up to two strategies (92%); 6% up to three; 2% four or more. • 10–11 years: 17% up to two; 78% up to three; 5% four or more. • 12–13 years: 3% up to two; 19% up to three; 78% four or more. - Mean strategies per pair: 8–9 years: mean ≈ 2; 10–11 years: mean ≈ 4; 12–13 years: mean ≈ 5. - Strategy type usage (chi-square significant): Significant association between age group and types of strategies used, χ²(10)=74.38, p<0.001. Younger children relied more on basic strategies (elements count, colors, size), whereas older children used more sophisticated strategies (decorative elements, architectural structure changes, and technique variations). - Frequencies of strategy use by age: • 8–9 years (n=50): Variations in elements=50; colors=50; size=13; decorative elements=5; architectural structure=1; technique=1; total=120. • 10–11 years (n=60): Variations in elements=60; colors=60; size=41; decorative elements=18; architectural structure=12; technique=4; total=195. • 12–13 years (n=62): Variations in elements=62; colors=62; size=58; decorative elements=42; architectural structure=35; technique=30; total=275. - Direction of changes: Across the sample, most enhancements favored the ideal home drawings, which showed increased detail, chromatic richness, decorative features, and architectural refinement compared to real home drawings.

The contrastive drawing task effectively elicited pictorial flexibility among children living in a highly disadvantaged urban context, enabling them to differentiate their real from their ideal living environments. Judges could reliably identify intended categories, supporting drawing as a communicative channel for accessing children's perspectives that are not easily captured by verbal methods. Age played a central role: younger children, likely constrained by canonical schemas and limited drawing practice and environmental iconography, predominantly used simple, perceptually oriented strategies (varying number of parts, colors, size). Older children demonstrated more advanced planning, executive control, and cognitive flexibility, employing complex strategies such as altering architectural structure, adding decorative elements, and varying technique. The enhancements predominantly benefited the ideal house, reflecting aspirations for improved functionality and aesthetics. The task supported imaginative distancing from current hardships, potentially fostering resilience by enabling children to envision alternative scenarios and articulate needs and desires. Findings extend drawing into a social semiotics framework of meaning-making and suggest practical applications in education and community programs to inform improvements in domestic and urban environments aligned with children's expectations.

This exploratory study shows that children in a Brazilian favela possess and develop pictorial flexibility that enables effective visual differentiation between real and desired homes, with clear developmental patterns: older children use more and more sophisticated strategies than younger peers. The contrastive drawing task functions as a powerful, accessible tool for eliciting children's perspectives on their environments and for supporting resilience by enabling expression of hopes and needs. Educational interventions can cultivate pictorial flexibility and broaden expressive potentials, embedding such drawing activities within programs to raise public awareness and guide improvements to domestic and urban spaces consistent with children's aspirations. Future research should expand beyond a single context, further quantify developmental trajectories of specific strategies, and evaluate the impact of structured drawing experiences or art education on pictorial flexibility in at-risk populations.

• Exploratory design limits causal inference. - Single-site sample from one favela in Rio de Janeiro may constrain generalizability. - A notable proportion of younger children's drawings were excluded for lack of differentiation, potentially biasing age comparisons. - Ecological, non-standardized assessment context (chosen to preserve naturalism) may introduce uncontrolled variability in materials and setting. - Limited prior drawing practice and environmental iconography among participants may have influenced performance and strategy use.