Do guide dogs have culture? The case of indirect social learning

The study of animal social learning (SL) and culture has advanced significantly, demonstrating diverse SL capacities across various species. However, the role of SL in shaping dog behavior, despite their remarkable human interaction skills and capacity for social learning from humans, remains largely unexplored. Dogs exhibit unique communicative abilities, including eye contact and perspective-taking, enabling them to learn a wide range of behaviors from humans. This capacity contrasts with that of other animals traditionally studied for animal culture, such as blue tits learning to open milk bottles or black rats developing efficient pine cone eating techniques. This study explores whether behaviors such as guiding a blind person should be considered as part of a dog's culture. The study hypothesizes that guide dogs' unique behavior is indeed a form of canine culture, transmitted via a specific form of indirect social learning (ISL) involving humans.

The literature review extensively cites studies on social learning in various species, highlighting examples like tandem running ants, capuchin monkeys, dolphins, and humpback whales. It establishes that social learning leads to locally adapted behaviors and traditions often termed 'culture'. The review then focuses on dogs' exceptional ability to interact with and learn from humans, drawing on research showing dogs' spontaneous communication initiatives, their understanding of human perspectives, and their responsiveness to human gestures. This contrasts with learning processes in other animals typically associated with culture. The authors note the surprising absence of dogs in research on animal culture, despite the considerable behavioral differences between dog populations resulting from their social learning from humans.

The methodology centers on a historical analysis of the diffusion of guide dog behavior throughout the 20th century. The authors meticulously trace the transmission chain, starting from Gerhard Stalling's observation of a German Shepherd's aptitude for guiding blind veterans in 1915, through the establishment of guide dog schools in Germany, and the subsequent spread of these practices to the United States through the efforts of Dorothy and George Eustis and Morris Frank. This historical account serves as a case study to illustrate the concept of ISL. The authors then define cultural behaviors in animals, using established criteria: presence in some populations and absence in others; non-genetic acquisition; social transmission; and a positive feedback loop where the learning of the behavior by one individual increases the probability of learning by other individuals. This framework is applied to the guide dog example, examining how the successful learning of guiding by one dog influences the propagation of the behavior through human trainers. They then differentiate direct social learning (DSL) and indirect social learning (ISL), illustrating different forms of ISL mediated by objects (partially eaten pinecones, books) and behaviors. The study specifically analyzes ISL mediated by behaviors, where a dog's behavior influences the behavior of humans, leading to further training of other dogs. The authors further compare the 'sociality' of ISL mediated by objects (weak) and ISL mediated by behaviors (strong).

The central finding is that the behavior of guide dogs fulfills all criteria for a cultural behavior: it is present in specific dog populations, not genetically determined, socially learned (albeit indirectly), and its presence increases the likelihood of its propagation. This is despite the fact that guide dogs don’t learn from other guide dogs but instead from human trainers, illustrating ISL. The study establishes that the success of one dog in guiding leads to changes in human trainers' practices, creating a chain of social interactions (DSL sequences) that result in the training of other dogs. This contrasts with the ISL mediated by objects, like partially eaten pinecones. The authors introduce 'ISL mediated by behaviour' as a previously unidentified, powerful mechanism for cultural transmission, especially pertinent in interspecies interactions. They argue this mechanism is significant for understanding culture in domesticated species, and potentially other species with close interactions with humans (or even other species). The study uses the guide dog example to show that many seemingly non-cultural behaviors in domesticated animals (e.g., leash walking, hunting with humans) could also be considered cultural traits transmitted via this form of ISL. Examples from Sika deer in Nara Park (Japan) bowing to get fed by humans, and human infants' learning to use baby bottles, further illustrate the significance of ISL mediated by behaviour in interactions involving humans.

The study addresses potential objections to its central claim that guide dog behavior is cultural. The objection that guide dog training is simply conditioning (associative learning) is refuted. Firstly, many other accepted forms of cultural behaviors in animals and humans involve conditioning. Secondly, the effectiveness of conditioning in dogs hinges on the dogs' capacity for social bonding with humans, making the social bond a crucial element of the learning process. Thirdly, the social bond is directly involved in the conditioning process itself; it is a factor influencing the success and efficiency of training. Therefore, the authors argue that given the established definition of culture and the social nature of dog training, guide dogs' behavior should indeed be considered cultural. The study also distinguishes between teaching (as defined in animal behavior literature—a form of cooperation) and ‘faire-faire’ (making someone do something), encompassing various types of asymmetric social relationships, including cases involving direct exploitation or one-sided benefits. The authors discuss how ISL contributes to gene-culture co-evolution, particularly in domestication. They suggest that for species with weak intraspecific social learning, exploiting the strong social learning abilities of another species, like humans, may be a more efficient strategy for cultural transmission.

This paper significantly expands our understanding of animal culture by introducing ISL mediated by behavior as a key mechanism for cultural transmission. It challenges the conventional focus on direct intraspecific copying, proposing a broader framework that considers the intricate network of inter- and intra-specific social interactions. The study demonstrates that culture can arise not only from copying but also from complementary behaviors shaped by asymmetric relationships and mutual or one-sided benefits. Future research should utilize experimental methodologies to further investigate ISL mediated by behaviors, especially in interspecies interactions.

The study primarily relies on a historical analysis of guide dog development, which might limit the generalizability of its findings. The authors acknowledge the need for further experimental studies to rigorously test the hypotheses. While the authors provide insightful examples of ISL mediated by behavior, more systematic research is required to understand its prevalence and influence across various species and contexts. Moreover, the precise mechanisms underlying ISL may be complex and require more detailed investigation.