Cyberostracism: Effects of Being Ignored Over the Internet

Ostracism, the act of ignoring and excluding, is a powerful social tactic used across species and cultures. Its effects have been observed in various settings, from primitive tribes to modern workplaces. Recent research suggests a link between internet usage and increased feelings of loneliness and depression, partially due to perceived online ignoring. This study aims to investigate the impact of cyberostracism, defined as intended or perceived ostracism in online communication, through two online experiments. Experiment 1 examines the perceived ostracism and self-reported feelings and thoughts after manipulation of ostracism levels. Experiment 2 investigates whether cyberostracism leads to conformity in subsequent tasks. The study is grounded in Williams's (1997) need threat theory of ostracism, which posits that ostracism threatens fundamental needs: belonging, self-esteem, control, and meaningful existence. The experiments hypothesize that cyberostracism will negatively affect these needs, leading to increased psychological discomfort and potentially increased conformity.

Extensive research demonstrates the prevalence and impact of ostracism. Studies across disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and social psychology, highlight ostracism's role in social regulation and its negative consequences for targets. Social psychological research shows that ostracism causes negative emotional reactions like depression, anxiety, and feelings of helplessness. The impact is amplified when ostracism is attributed to personal shortcomings or is blatant. Even imagined or role-played ostracism induces negative self-evaluations. Targets often feel negatively towards sources but may attempt to regain their favor. Williams's (1997) need threat theory proposes a unifying model, defining ostracism as acts of exclusion or ignoring that threaten four fundamental needs. The ambiguity inherent in ostracism, particularly the unanswered questions surrounding it, contributes to its aversiveness. This theory provides the framework for predicting the consequences of cyberostracism.

**Experiment 1:** 1720 participants accessed the study website; 234 were removed, leaving 1486 participants from 62 countries. Participants were randomly assigned to four ostracism conditions (overinclusion, inclusion, partial ostracism, complete ostracism) in a single-factor between-subjects design. Self-esteem served as a predictor variable. The study used a virtual ball-tossing game, where participants believed they were interacting with two other players (computer-generated). The probability of receiving the ball varied based on the assigned condition. Dependent variables included measures of needs threatened (belonging, control, meaningful existence, self-esteem), aversive impact (mood, intensity of ostracism, group cohesiveness), and persistence (number of turns played). A pre-experimental questionnaire collected demographics and self-esteem scores. A postexperimental questionnaire assessed the dependent variables. A thought-listing option provided space for participants' open-ended thoughts. **Experiment 2:** 501 users began the experiment; 270 dropped out, leaving 231 participants (18 removed due to suspicion); 213 participants formed the final sample. Participants were assigned to a 3 (group membership: in-group, out-group, mixed-group) × 2 (ostracism manipulation: inclusion or ostracism) between-subjects factorial design. The study used a modified "cyberball" game with increased animation. All participants played for 10 turns, with ostracism manipulated from turn 5 onwards. The in-group/out-group manipulation used PC and Mac users. After the game, participants completed a conformity task involving perceptual judgments, after viewing (ostensibly) other users' responses. Conformity was measured as the mean percentage of incorrect judgments conformed to and the percentage of participants conforming at least once. Dependent variables included conformity, belonging, perceptions of throws received, and group composition recall. Thought bubbles allowed participants to share thoughts during the game. A post-experimental questionnaire assessed manipulation checks and belonging.

**Experiment 1:** The ostracism manipulation was successful; participants accurately perceived the number of throws received. Aversive impact (measured by negative mood, intensity of ostracism, and low group cohesiveness) increased with higher quantities of ostracism. Lower self-esteem was related to higher aversive impact. Mediational analysis showed that ostracism’s impact on aversive feelings was mediated by feelings of belonging and self-esteem, but not control or meaningful existence. Persistence (game duration) was curvilinear, increasing until complete ostracism, then decreasing. Overinclusion was not aversive, unlike ostracism. **Experiment 2:** The ostracism and group membership manipulations were generally successful. Ostracized participants conformed significantly more to the unanimous incorrect judgments in the subsequent conformity task than included participants. There was no significant interaction between ostracism and group membership on conformity. However, while ostracized participants generally reported lower belonging, this effect wasn't found for those ostracized by in-group members, suggesting a potential lack of overt acknowledgement of ostracism within in-groups. The mixed-group condition (one in-group, one out-group member ostracizing) showed high conformity and accurately reported exclusion and lower belonging.

The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the internet ostracism paradigm in eliciting feelings of ostracism and its subsequent consequences. Participants experienced negative reactions even in the minimal social environment of the online game, highlighting the potency of ostracism. Experiment 1 provided partial support for the need threat theory, showing belonging and self-esteem as mediators between ostracism and aversive impact. The lack of effects for control and meaningful existence may be due to the nature of cyberostracism or the measure's wording. The curvilinear relationship between ostracism and persistence might be explained by partial reinforcement effects. Experiment 2 extended the findings beyond self-reports, showing increased conformity in ostracized participants. This suggests that ostracism drives efforts to regain a sense of belonging, even with a new group. The lack of interaction between ostracism and group membership on conformity requires further investigation. The in-group ostracism condition showed an inconsistency between self-reported belonging and conformity, suggesting potential reluctance to admit negative experiences within the in-group. The mixed-group condition warrants further exploration.

This study successfully demonstrates that cyberostracism can induce negative feelings and behavioral changes comparable to those observed in face-to-face ostracism. The findings strongly support Williams’s (1997) need threat theory of ostracism, particularly regarding the impact on belonging and self-esteem. The internet methodology offers advantages in terms of sample size and diversity but also presents challenges concerning participant verification, dropout rates, and control over participant environment. Future research should explore the long-term effects of cyberostracism, investigate the moderating effects of individual differences, and examine different forms of online interactions to refine the understanding of cyberostracism's impact.

The study's limitations include potential self-selection bias due to the high dropout rates, particularly in Experiment 2. Uncertainty about participants' true identities and potential multiple participation by individuals could affect the results. The specific nature of the online interaction (virtual ball-tossing game) may not fully generalize to all forms of cyberostracism. Additionally, the experimental control over the environment was limited because the study was conducted online.