Bored by bothering? A cost-value approach to pandemic boredom

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated widespread implementation of non-pharmaceutical containment measures. The effectiveness of these measures hinges on individual compliance, which can be challenging and potentially lead to boredom. Existing research suggests that boredom proneness negatively impacts compliance, but less is known about whether compliance itself causes boredom. This study addresses this gap by investigating the influence of perceived value and effort associated with adhering to containment measures on the experience of boredom, specifically focusing on avoiding travel and gatherings during the Thanksgiving and upcoming winter holidays. The study posits that boredom arises when activities are perceived as meaningless (lack of value) and require high mental effort. The researchers hypothesize that the experience of boredom during the pandemic is shaped by both the direct effects of value and effort on boredom and the indirect effects mediated by compliance with containment measures. The study's timing, during a surge in COVID-19 cases with limited therapeutic options, makes the investigation of boredom's role in adherence particularly relevant.

The study draws upon several theories of boredom, including the Meaning and Attentional Components (MAC) model and the Control-Value Theory (CVT). These theories suggest that boredom arises from a perceived lack of meaning and high mental effort in engaging with an activity. The lack of meaning is related to the perceived value of the superordinate goal and the usefulness of the behavior in achieving that goal. High mental effort stems from the need for self-control in maintaining engagement with an unfulfilling activity. The study notes prior research linking prolonged adherence to containment measures to boredom and the emergence of "pandemic fatigue." The Thanksgiving and winter holidays, traditionally times for social interaction, were selected as critical periods where compliance with restrictions requires considerable effort and might be particularly challenging in terms of perceived value.

Data were collected from 1553 US participants recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk. Participants completed an online questionnaire assessing retrospective experiences during Thanksgiving and prospective expectations for the winter holidays. Measures included scales for: (1) avoiding travel and gathering; (2) perceived value of avoiding travel and gathering; (3) perceived effort of avoiding travel and gathering; (4) experience of pandemic boredom (using adjectives like bored, dull, monotonous); (5) positive and negative affect; (6) subjective perception of COVID-19 restrictions; and (7) boredom proneness. Data analysis employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the hypothesized relationships between these variables. The study also controlled for demographic variables such as age and gender and examined data from states with and without official COVID-19 restrictions using a multigroup analysis. The internal consistency of the measures was assessed using Cronbach's alpha, and correlations between variables were examined. The primary analyses consisted of separate SEM models for the retrospective (Thanksgiving) and prospective (winter holidays) data.

The results of the SEM analyses revealed that compliance with behavioral recommendations (avoiding travel and gatherings) was positively associated with boredom in both the retrospective (Thanksgiving) and prospective (winter holidays) models. However, higher perceived value was associated with lower direct effects on boredom, but higher indirect effects (through increased compliance). Higher perceived effort led to higher direct effects on boredom, but lower indirect effects (through decreased compliance). The total effects of both value and effort on boredom were positive, suggesting that even though higher value and lower effort directly reduce boredom, their indirect effects through behavioral compliance outweigh these direct effects. This indicates that simply increasing perceived value might not be enough to alleviate boredom related to compliance. The models also showed a significant positive association between boredom proneness and pandemic boredom, indicating that individuals predisposed to boredom are more susceptible to experiencing pandemic-related boredom. The overall pattern of results was remarkably consistent across both time points (Thanksgiving and winter holidays), across states with and without restrictions, and after controlling for age and gender. Compliance was generally high, suggesting that value attributed to the measures was a major determinant of behavior.

The findings confirm that complying with COVID-19 containment measures can lead to boredom, an aversive state strongly associated with negative affect. The study highlights the trade-off between the socially desirable behavior of compliance and the individual cost of increased boredom. The counteracting direct and indirect effects of value and effort suggest that increasing the perceived value of restrictions might inadvertently increase boredom due to heightened compliance. Therefore, simply focusing on increasing the perceived value of containment measures might not be sufficient. The significant role of boredom proneness emphasizes the need to consider individual differences in designing interventions to improve compliance. The robustness of the findings across various contexts and time points strengthens their generalizability.

This study demonstrates a significant link between compliance with COVID-19 restrictions, perceived value and effort, and pandemic-related boredom. The findings highlight the importance of considering the psychological costs of compliance, particularly the potential for increased boredom. Future research could experimentally manipulate value and effort to establish stronger causal relationships and utilize longitudinal studies or experience sampling methods to better capture the dynamics of boredom during the pandemic. Furthermore, cross-cultural studies are needed to assess the generalizability of the findings.

The study's reliance on cross-sectional data limits the ability to definitively establish causal relationships. The use of retrospective and prospective self-report measures might be susceptible to recall bias and inaccuracies in predicting future emotional states. The sample was limited to US participants recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk, restricting the generalizability of the findings to other cultural contexts. The study aggregated data, potentially masking individual variations in experiences and behaviors.