Assessing the Adoption of Sustainable Transportation in Urban Centres in Ghana: The Case of Adum

Background and context: Ghana’s rapid urbanization (urban growth ~3.4% annually; urban population projected to reach 60% by 2030) has intensified mobility challenges, particularly in high-demand commercial districts. Adum, the commercial core of Kumasi (metropolitan population >3 million), experiences intensive daily mobility with high vehicular and pedestrian congestion and inadequate public transport and non-motorized infrastructure. National policies (e.g., National Transport Policy 2020; climate and SDG commitments) recognize the need for sustainable mobility, yet adoption and implementation in urban centres remain limited. This study examines Adum as a representative case of a high-density commercial district facing severe transport stress.

Problem statement: Despite policy commitments and clear environmental and economic costs (e.g., congestion estimated to cost ~3.1% of GDP), unsustainable transport patterns persist in Adum—dominated by private vehicles, limited and unreliable public transit, absent cycling infrastructure, and hostile pedestrian environments—resulting in congestion and air pollution. There is a knowledge gap on awareness levels, infrastructural, economic, institutional, and cultural barriers, stakeholder attitudes, policy effectiveness, and context-appropriate interventions.

Research questions: Main question—What are the key factors influencing the adoption of sustainable transportation in Adum, Kumasi, and what strategies can facilitate its successful implementation? Sub-questions address: (1) awareness and understanding among users and stakeholders; (2) infrastructural deficits for public transit, cycling, and walking; (3) economic/affordability influences on mode choice; (4) cultural attitudes and social norms; (5) effectiveness of existing plans/policies; (6) stakeholder (operators, planners, policymakers) perceptions of challenges/opportunities; (7) context-appropriate intervention strategies and recommendations.

Aim and objectives: The aim is to comprehensively assess the current state of sustainable transportation adoption in Adum, identify barriers and enablers shaping mode choices, and develop evidence-based, context-appropriate recommendations for policy and planning to facilitate sustainable mobility in Ghana’s commercial urban centres. Objectives include evaluating awareness; identifying infrastructural barriers; examining economic factors; investigating cultural/social influences; reviewing policy/regulatory frameworks; capturing multi-stakeholder perspectives; and synthesizing findings into practical recommendations.

Significance: Academically, the study fills gaps in West African/Ghanaian sustainable transport research and demonstrates a mixed-methods approach suited to adoption dynamics. For policy and planning, it offers empirical evidence to inform national and municipal strategies, infrastructure prioritization, regulatory frameworks, multimodal integration, and public awareness campaigns. Practically, it informs transport operators, businesses, and civil society, and contributes to SDGs 11, 13, and 3.

Scope: Geographically focused on Adum (Kumasi’s CBD) with relevance to similar Ghanaian commercial districts. Thematically focused on adoption of sustainable modes (public transit, cycling, walking) and reduction in private fossil-fuel vehicle dependence, considering awareness, infrastructure, economics, culture, policy, and institutional capacity. Temporal scope reflects conditions and perspectives during 2024–2025. Stakeholders include residents/commuters, transport operators, planners/officials (KMA), and businesses.

Methodological overview: A pragmatist, mixed-methods exploratory-descriptive design integrates household/commuter surveys, semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, and direct observation of mobility/infrastructure conditions. Sampling employs purposive and convenience approaches for users and purposive selection of key informants. Quantitative data are analyzed descriptively/inferentially; qualitative data are thematically analyzed.

Conceptual framework: Integrates the Technology Acceptance Model (perceived usefulness and ease of use) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control), embedded within structural/contextual factors: infrastructure availability, economic considerations, social/cultural norms, and policy/institutional context. These factors shape intentions and actual mode choices, influencing overall adoption.

Limitations (overview): Single-case (Adum) focus limits generalizability; cross-sectional design limits temporal inference; constrained sample sizes; potential self-reporting bias; and context-specificity affecting external validity.

Chapter organization: Chapter Two reviews literature; Chapter Three details methodology; Chapter Four presents findings and discussion; Chapter Five provides conclusions and recommendations.

The literature review covers conceptual foundations, global trends, theoretical frameworks, barriers/enablers, Sub-Saharan African contexts, Ghana-specific research, and policy/planning approaches.

Conceptual foundations and modes: Sustainable transportation balances environmental protection, social equity, and economic viability, emphasizing accessibility and livability. The sustainable mobility paradigm seeks to reduce travel demand, shift to sustainable modes, and improve necessary trips’ efficiency. Sustainable mode categories include public transit (BRT, rail, buses), non-motorized transport (walking, cycling), shared mobility (car/bike/ride-sharing), and low-emission vehicles; effective systems integrate multiple modes.

Benefits: Documented environmental, economic, social, and health benefits include reduced GHGs and air/noise pollution, lower household and infrastructure costs, improved equity and access, enhanced safety and community cohesion, and better physical/mental health outcomes.

Global trends and best practices: European cities (Copenhagen, Amsterdam, Zurich) and cases like London’s congestion pricing and Curitiba’s BRT show that sustained political commitment, investment, integrated land use–transport planning, pricing mechanisms, regulation prioritizing sustainable modes, and public engagement underpin success. Asian exemplars (Singapore, Guangzhou) highlight integrated planning and BRT scale, while cautioning on persistent implementation challenges.

Theoretical frameworks: TAM (perceived usefulness and ease of use) and TPB (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control) have been applied to transport adoption (e.g., bikesharing, EVs, public transit). An integrated framework situates individual and household factors within infrastructural, economic, cultural, and policy/institutional contexts. Habit formation suggests that interventions disrupting routines and enabling trials can catalyze adoption.

Barriers: Infrastructural deficits (limited routes/frequency, poor vehicle conditions, lack of sidewalks/cycling lanes and safe crossings), economic/financial constraints (user costs, operator viability, limited public investment), cultural/social factors (status associated with car ownership, gender norms, safety concerns), institutional/governance weaknesses (fragmented responsibilities, inadequate long-term planning, misaligned regulations, weak enforcement), and awareness/information gaps (limited knowledge of options and benefits, inadequate information systems) collectively impede adoption.

Sub-Saharan African context: Rapid, often unplanned urbanization, reliance on informal paratransit (e.g., trotros), high shares of walking amid hostile pedestrian environments, and low cycling rates due to safety and stigma characterize many cities. Fiscal constraints, informal settlements, institutional capacity limits, and complex political economies pose challenges. Emerging initiatives (BRT in Lagos/Dar es Salaam, integrated rapid transit in South Africa, light rail in Addis Ababa, NMT improvements) illustrate possibilities but remain limited relative to need.

Ghana-specific research: Studies document congestion in Accra, gendered mobility constraints, weak policy implementation despite progressive frameworks, and hostile pedestrian conditions in Kumasi. Comprehensive, empirical adoption-focused research in Ghanaian commercial districts remains limited, justifying the Adum case study.

Policy and planning approaches: Integrated SUMPs, transit-oriented development, demand management (congestion and parking pricing), supply-side investments in transit/NMT, and awareness/behavior change campaigns (including personalized travel planning and social marketing) are highlighted. Effectiveness depends on contextual adaptation, institutional capacity, and combining supply improvements with demand management and land-use integration.

Knowledge gaps: Limited Ghana-specific, commercial-district-focused, multi-dimensional barrier analyses integrating diverse stakeholder perspectives remain; there is a need for context-specific, actionable recommendations—gaps this study addresses.

Research philosophy and design: Guided by a pragmatist philosophy, the study adopts an exploratory-descriptive mixed-methods design to capture the multidimensional nature of sustainable transport adoption in Adum.

Data collection methods:

• Household/commuter surveys: Structured questionnaires administered to Adum residents and regular commuters to collect quantitative data on mode choices, trip patterns, awareness, attitudes, and demographics.
• Semi-structured interviews: In-depth interviews with transport operators (e.g., taxi, trotro, bus), urban planners and transport officials (e.g., KMA), and commercial establishment representatives to gather qualitative insights on barriers, opportunities, and perceptions.
• Direct observation: Systematic observation of mobility flows, infrastructure conditions (transit stops, sidewalks, crossings, cycling facilities), and user behaviors within Adum.

Sampling strategy: Purposive and convenience sampling for user surveys targeting individuals who regularly travel to/within Adum. Purposive selection of key informants for interviews based on expertise and decision-making roles in transport and urban planning.

Data analysis: Quantitative survey data analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics and presented in tabular/graphical forms where applicable. Qualitative interview and observation data analyzed through thematic analysis to identify recurring patterns and themes related to awareness, infrastructural conditions, economic considerations, cultural norms, and institutional/policy factors.

Ethical considerations: Informed consent, confidentiality, and voluntary participation observed; data anonymized for analysis and reporting.

Methodological limitations: Cross-sectional design limits temporal inference; non-probability sampling and sample size constraints may affect generalizability; self-reported survey data subject to social desirability bias, partially mitigated by direct observation.

• Awareness: Moderate awareness of sustainable transportation concepts among users and stakeholders in Adum.
• Barriers: Adoption is significantly hindered by inadequate infrastructure (limited/poor-quality public transit, lack of cycling facilities, hostile pedestrian environments), institutional constraints (fragmented responsibilities, weak enforcement), and socio-cultural preferences favoring private motorized transport.
• Implications: Despite policy frameworks promoting sustainability, practical implementation gaps persist, resulting in continued dominance of private vehicle use and associated congestion and environmental impacts in Adum.

The findings address the main research question by identifying the critical factors influencing adoption in Adum: moderate awareness coexists with structural barriers—particularly infrastructural deficits, institutional/implementation weaknesses, and cultural preferences for private vehicles—that collectively suppress uptake of sustainable modes. These results align with theoretical expectations from TAM and TPB, where perceived usefulness and ease of use (convenience, safety, and accessibility of sustainable modes) and social norms/status considerations shape intentions and behavior. The infrastructural and institutional shortcomings reduce perceived ease of use and control, while socio-cultural norms elevate the attractiveness of private vehicles.

The significance lies in demonstrating that policy statements alone are insufficient; effective adoption requires simultaneous improvements to service quality and coverage of public transport, provision of safe and continuous pedestrian and cycling infrastructure, and credible, sustained enforcement of supportive regulations. Complementary public awareness and behavior change initiatives can leverage and reinforce these structural improvements. Context-specific evidence from Adum thus contributes practical guidance for Ghanaian urban centres facing similar commercial-district mobility challenges.

This study contributes empirical evidence on sustainable transportation adoption in Adum, Kumasi, highlighting that moderate awareness is undermined by inadequate infrastructure, institutional constraints, and socio-cultural preferences for private motorized transport. It underscores the need for coordinated interventions: improving public transport efficiency and reliability; investing in safe, continuous pedestrian and cycling infrastructure; and strengthening policy enforcement, complemented by targeted public awareness and behavior change initiatives.

Main contributions include: (1) a context-specific assessment of barriers and enablers across awareness, infrastructure, economic, cultural, and institutional domains; (2) application of an integrated TAM–TPB framework to a Ghanaian commercial district; and (3) practical recommendations aligned with local conditions to support urban mobility planning and sustainable development objectives.

Future research directions, informed by identified limitations, include longitudinal studies to track adoption dynamics over time; larger, probabilistic samples for greater generalizability; comparative studies across different district types (residential, peri-urban) and cities; and evaluation research on the impacts of specific interventions (e.g., transit service upgrades, pedestrianization, cycling infrastructure, parking pricing) on mode shift and user perceptions.

• Geographic limitation: Single case study focused on Adum limits generalizability to areas with different characteristics (e.g., residential neighborhoods, peri-urban areas, other cities).
• Temporal limitation: Cross-sectional design captures conditions and perspectives at one point in time (2024–2025) and cannot assess temporal changes or long-term impacts.
• Sample size limitation: Resource and time constraints limited survey and interview sample sizes, affecting statistical power and subgroup analyses.
• Self-reporting bias: Survey responses may reflect social desirability rather than actual behavior; partially mitigated through direct observation and confidentiality.
• External validity: Recommended interventions are context-specific; application elsewhere requires adaptation to local conditions and capacities.