Archaeological evidence of an ethnographically documented Australian Aboriginal ritual dated to the last ice age

The study of oral traditions and intangible cultural heritage is challenged by the difficulty of archaeologically verifying their longevity. While material culture can offer clues, reinterpretation and copying over generations can complicate the picture. This research aims to overcome these challenges by investigating exceptionally well-preserved archaeological materials from Cloggs Cave, located in GunaiKurnai Country in southeastern Australia. The cave, documented ethnographically as a site for secluded ritual practices by 'mulla-mullung' (medicine men and women), provides a unique opportunity to trace a specific ritual practice back in time. The researchers hypothesized that the unique conditions of the cave, coupled with the nature of the ritual materials (quickly decaying wooden artifacts smeared with fat), would allow them to demonstrate continuity of a specific ritual practice over an exceptionally long time span, thereby addressing the challenge of linking intangible heritage to tangible archaeological remains. The project's significance lies in its potential to demonstrate the remarkable resilience of cultural practices and oral traditions spanning millennia, providing insights into the long-term transmission of knowledge within Aboriginal societies and demonstrating the power of collaborative research between Indigenous communities and academic institutions. The ethical considerations of working with Indigenous cultural heritage are emphasized throughout the study, with all research conducted in partnership with and with the full consent of the GunaiKurnai Land and Waters Aboriginal Corporation, the Traditional Owners of the land.

Existing literature highlights the difficulties in archaeologically tracing ethnographically documented rituals beyond a few hundred years due to factors like reinterpretation and copying of visible materials. Studies on oral traditions in different parts of the world (e.g., Solomon Islands, New England, Torres Strait) illustrate the complexities of cultural transmission and the challenges of distinguishing between genuine continuity and later adoption or reinvention. This study builds upon this existing research by focusing on a specific ritual practice in a unique archaeological context. The study draws upon 19th-century ethnographic accounts of GunaiKurnai rituals, particularly the work of Alfred Howitt, which describe the use of *Casuarina* wood and animal/human fat in ritual installations within secluded cave settings. The existing knowledge serves as a crucial framework for interpreting the newly discovered archaeological evidence.

The research involved archaeological excavations at Cloggs Cave, focusing on square R31, which revealed two miniature fireplaces with associated wooden artifacts. The 2019-2020 excavations built upon a previous excavation in 1971-1972. The research was conducted in full partnership with the GunaiKurnai Land and Waters Aboriginal Corporation, adhering to ethical protocols outlined in a memorandum of understanding. Excavation methods involved meticulous stratigraphic recording in arbitrary excavation units (XUs), with all materials handled using aseptic practices to avoid contamination. Samples were collected for various analyses, including accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating of charcoal, possum scats, wood, and bark; optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating; and uranium-thorium dating of stalactites. Bayesian modeling integrated all chronological data to establish a robust timeframe. Wood identification was performed using microscopy, analyzing anatomical features according to IAWA standards. Residue analysis employed a modified Picrosirius Red (PSR) staining procedure and high-powered microscopy to identify lipids on the wooden artifacts. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analyzed the extracted lipids to determine their source (animal or human fat). All analyses were conducted independently of ethnographic knowledge to avoid bias.

Excavations in square R31 revealed two distinct miniature fireplaces, each containing a single, trimmed *Casuarina* wood stick with evidence of low-temperature burning. The wood sticks exhibited unusual features, such as carefully trimmed smaller twigs creating a smooth surface. Residue analysis confirmed the presence of animal or human fat on the sticks, aligning with ethnographic descriptions. Radiocarbon dating, in conjunction with Bayesian modeling, dated the installations to 11,420–12,950 cal BP and 10,720–12,420 cal BP. The absence of food remains and the unique features of the installations suggested they were not used for cooking or heating. The find is remarkable due to the extremely well-preserved wooden artifacts, rare in Pleistocene and Early Holocene archaeological sites in Australia, representing Australia’s oldest known wooden artifacts. The analysis of the wooden artifacts, using reflected light microscopy and following the IAWA standards for wood identification, revealed that the wood is consistent with *Casuarina cunninghamiana* or *Casuarina glauca*. The exceptional preservation of the installation’s structural integrity pointed to rapid burial and undisturbed preservation since last use. In one of the fireplaces, a wombat scat was found on the edge of the fireplace, indicating it was deliberately placed as part of the ritual installation. The analysis of lipid residue revealed an abundance of fatty acids commonly found in animal or human fat. The chemical analysis identified multiple fatty acids including palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid, consistent with animal or human fat. The presence of other fatty acids (pentadecanoic acid, myristoleic acid, and margaric acid) pointed towards specific native Australian animal species. Furthermore, the identification of 13 glycerides further supported the animal or human origin of these lipids. The findings demonstrate a strong convergence between the archaeological evidence and the 19th-century ethnographic accounts of GunaiKurnai ritual practices.

The convergence of archaeological data and historical ethnography strongly supports the continuity of a specific GunaiKurnai ritual practice for at least 12,000 years. The unique combination of well-preserved *Casuarina* wood, smeared with animal or human fat, within meticulously constructed miniature fireplaces, directly mirrors descriptions from 19th-century ethnographic sources. The findings confirm the remarkable resilience of this ritual practice, demonstrating the long-term transmission of knowledge and cultural practices across numerous generations, refuting assumptions about the instability of oral traditions. The study's implications extend beyond the specific GunaiKurnai practice, highlighting the potential for collaborative research involving Indigenous communities and scientists to reveal the deep temporal depth of intangible heritage. This approach offers a powerful method for understanding the long-term transmission of knowledge and cultural practices in societies without writing systems.

This research demonstrates the extraordinary longevity of an ethnographically documented Aboriginal ritual practice, tracing it back 12,000 years to the last ice age. The exceptional preservation of *Casuarina* wood artifacts, smeared with animal or human fat, within miniature fireplaces, provides compelling evidence for the long-term transmission of cultural knowledge and practices. The collaborative approach, prioritizing Indigenous data sovereignty, showcases the power of partnerships between Indigenous communities and academic researchers in uncovering deep time histories. Future research could explore similar sites in the region to further investigate the spatial and temporal extent of this ritual practice and analyze additional samples to further pinpoint the origin of the lipids and to ascertain whether the ritual was practiced continuously or experienced interruptions and changes.

The study is limited by the fact that it relies on the interpretation of material remains to infer past behavior. While the convergence of archaeological and ethnographic evidence is strong, direct observation of the ritual practices is not possible. The small sample size of two ritual installations may not fully capture the diversity of practices or the full range of variation. Further research, including the investigation of other similar sites, is needed to fully understand the broader context and variability of this ritual practice. Furthermore, while the lipid analysis strongly suggests an animal or human fat source, the exact species of animal remains unidentified.