A scoping review of adoption of climate-resilient crops by small-scale producers in low- and middle-income countries

The study addresses how and under what conditions small-scale food producers in low- and middle-income countries adopt climate-resilient crops and varieties. It is motivated by rising climate risks—droughts, heat waves, flooding—that threaten food security and livelihoods in rain-fed systems and could reduce staple crop yields by up to 30%. Given growing demand for food and resource constraints, adopting climate-resilient crops (for example, early-maturing, drought- or heat-tolerant, salinity-tolerant, or submergence-tolerant varieties) is viewed as a proactive adaptation strategy. Despite clear potential benefits, adoption rates are inconsistent across contexts. This scoping review synthesizes three decades of evidence from climate-vulnerable LMICs (as classified by ND-GAIN indicators) to identify determinants of adoption and pathways to increase uptake and reduce dis-adoption.

The review follows scoping review guidelines (PRISMA extension for scoping reviews, PRISMA-SCR) with a pre-registered protocol (Open Science Framework; PRISMA-P protocol registered 4 June 2019). The guiding question was: what determinants lead small-scale producers in LMICs to adopt climate-resilient crops and varieties? Comprehensive searches were conducted in CAB Abstracts and Global Health, Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus, and grey literature sources using terms related to small-scale producers, germplasm, and climate resilience; results were deduplicated and managed in Covidence. Title and abstract screening was double-blind by two independent reviewers per record, with conflicts resolved by a third. Full-text screening applied a priori inclusion criteria: small-scale producers focus; publication year ≥1990; original research and/or reviews (including grey literature); explicit relevance to climate resilience/adaptation; focus on crops/varieties/seed/planting materials/germplasm; mention of adoption factors; LMIC focus per World Bank. From 5,650 records screened, 886 full texts were assessed and 202 studies met criteria for inclusion. Data extraction used a piloted template capturing study characteristics, populations, cropping systems, and 29 predefined determinants of adoption/dis-adoption; additional policy/programmatic recommendations were recorded. Data were synthesized qualitatively by emergent themes; as customary for scoping reviews, formal study quality appraisal was not conducted. Methods and PRISMA flow are detailed in Supplementary Information and Extended Data.

- Corpus and methods: 202 included studies; 89% peer-reviewed, 11% grey literature. Methods: 87 mixed-methods, 82 quantitative, 33 qualitative. - Leading determinants of adoption (overall): (1) Access to and effectiveness of agricultural extension and outreach (nearly 50% of studies cited), (2) Education level of household head, (3) Access to farm inputs, especially seeds and fertilizers, (4) Farmer experience and skills, (5) Social status, (6) Access to climate information. - Regional patterns: Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and East Asia showed broadly consistent top determinants, though their ranking varied. Access to inputs was most important in South Asia and second in SSA; farmer experience ranked highest in East Asia. Education of household head was highly important across regions. In Latin America and the Caribbean and MENA (fewer studies), education of the head of household was the most frequently cited determinant. - Crops studied: Among studies specifying crops, 67% focused on cereals (maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, millet, barley, teff); <1% focused on legumes only; 25% examined combinations (cereals with legumes, roots/tubers/bananas, vegetables/fruits); 33% did not specify a crop. Primary use was human consumption (44%), or human and animal feed (26%); 30% not clearly stated. - Traits and strategies: Most studied trait was drought tolerance, followed by water-use efficiency and earlier maturity. Early-maturing varieties help adjust planting dates and mitigate late-season drought/heat risks. Planting date changes were reported in 32% of papers. In 67% of studies, adoption of climate-resilient crops occurred alongside other practices (CSA/CA, tree/shrub planting, irrigation changes, livestock adjustments) rather than as stand-alone actions. - Seed-related themes (73 papers): Access and affordability and availability/timeliness/proximity were the most prevalent barriers (mentioned in ~60% of seed-related papers). Social networks (farmer groups, co-ops, community seed banks) facilitated seed exchange and information flow, enhancing adoption; integration of informal and formal seed systems was emphasized. Information gaps about varieties and where to acquire seed limited adoption; extension and supply chain actors were important information sources. Gendered barriers: female-headed households had less access to improved seed and extension; small, affordable seed packs were proposed as solutions. Some concerns were noted about hybrid seed attributes and local suitability; in abiotic stress conditions, farmers sometimes preferred composites or landraces. - Social differences: 53% of studies found social differences (sex, education, age, family size) influenced adoption; 30% found no effect; 15% did not include social-difference data. Among influential factors: sex (28%), age (24%), education (22%), family size (14%); income (6%), access to information (5%), marital status (2%), experience (2%). Forty-five percent of studies sex-disaggregated respondents; 39% included both male and female household heads; 5% men only; 1% women only. Many studies treated social variables superficially without follow-up qualitative analysis. - Socio-economic status and finance: 31% highlighted socio-economic status as influential. Access to finance (credit, insurance, remittances) increased adoption likelihood; constrained credit reduced adoption of modern varieties and increased reliance on local varieties. - Dis-adoption (12 studies): Main reasons were poor performance/quality not meeting expectations (8), government policies (3), technical constraints (2), labor shortages (1), financial constraints (1). Four of eight performance-related cases cited inadequate stress performance under field conditions. - Complementary adaptation actions: Common responses included modified planting activities (32%), irrigation/water management (32%), new varieties (24%), fertilizer/pesticide use adjustments (16%), tree planting (12%), storage/infrastructure (5%), seeking off-farm work/migration (5%). - Suggested actions (frequency across studies): prioritize extension programs (15.8%), improve access to financial instruments (12.1%), implement community programs (11.7%), promote germplasm conservation and research (10.4%), increase access to inputs (8.3%), raise awareness of climate/weather impacts (7.9%) and of climate-resilient crops (6.3%), develop infrastructure (5.8%), target youth and women (5.8%), provide access to climate-resilient seed (5.4%), offer low-cost options (5.4%), and link to poverty-reduction initiatives (2.5%).

Findings directly address the research question by identifying consistent, high-leverage determinants that enable adoption of climate-resilient crops among small-scale producers in LMICs. Extension services and timely, actionable information (including climate services) emerge as cross-cutting enablers across regions. Education of household heads facilitates understanding and uptake of new technologies; access to inputs (seed, fertilizers) and finance lowers practical barriers to adoption. Experience with climatic shocks can increase receptivity to climate-resilient varieties. However, determinants are strongly context-specific; studies report both positive and negative associations for variables like age or wealth depending on environmental, policy, and household interactions. Adoption typically occurs within broader, multi-practice CSA strategies rather than as a single change, underscoring the need for systems approaches. The evidence highlights critical gender and social inclusion gaps: many studies inadequately capture intra-household dynamics, and women’s perspectives beyond household headship are often missing, limiting the generalizability of conclusions. Crop focus is heavily skewed toward cereals despite the resilience and nutritional value of legumes and roots/tubers, indicating potential underinvestment and missed opportunities. Strengthening formal–informal seed system linkages and social networks is pivotal for seed access and information dissemination. Overall, multifaceted interventions—combining seed availability with advisory services, finance, infrastructure, and inclusive policies—are most likely to yield sustained adoption and reduce dis-adoption.

This scoping review consolidates 30 years of evidence on adoption of climate-resilient crops by small-scale producers in LMICs, identifying extension/outreach, education, access to inputs and finance, and socio-economic status as key determinants. Adoption is most successful when integrated with broader CSA practices and tailored to local contexts. Policy and programmatic implications include: pairing access to climate-resilient seed with timely advisory and early-warning services; empowering farmer social networks and integrating formal and informal seed systems; evolving extension toward participatory, ICT-enabled, partnership-based models; supporting enabling assets and services (education, land, finance, infrastructure); and designing multiple, context-specific interventions rather than one-size-fits-all programs. Future research should prioritize high-quality, intra-household decision-making studies, mandate disaggregated data collection (gender, age, other social differences), investigate reasons for dis-adoption, and expand focus to diverse, nutrition- and resilience-relevant crops (e.g., legumes, roots, tubers). Breeding and development programs should incorporate farmer and market trait preferences alongside stress tolerance to support both adoption and sustained use.

- Evidence base imbalances: relatively few studies from Latin America and the Caribbean and MENA limit regional generalizability; crop focus is heavily skewed toward cereals, with underrepresentation of legumes and roots/tubers. - Social analysis gaps: many studies included only superficial treatment of social differences; few examined intra-household dynamics or included women beyond household headship, constraining gender-responsive insights. - Context specificity and mixed effects: determinants such as age, wealth, and experience showed opposing effects across contexts, limiting universal recommendations. - Dis-adoption evidence is sparse (12 studies), restricting robust conclusions on sustained use and reasons for discontinuation. - As a scoping review, no formal critical appraisal of study quality was conducted, which may affect interpretation of aggregated findings. - Some data gaps (e.g., 30% of studies did not clearly state crop end-use; 33% did not specify crop) constrain detailed analysis.