Untangling racism: Stress reactions in response to variations of racism against Black Canadians

The research explores the impact of racism on Black Canadians, particularly focusing on the ambiguity surrounding racist experiences within Canada's multicultural context. While overt racism is discouraged, subtle or ambiguous forms persist, potentially undermining the well-being of Black individuals. The study examines how the ambiguity of racist encounters affects emotional and physiological responses, particularly in relation to perceptions of societal value towards Black people. The researchers hypothesize that ambiguous racism may lead to more internalized emotional reactions and poorer well-being, especially when combined with a belief that Black people are highly valued in society. This hypothesis is based on the stress and coping framework, suggesting that uncertainty about the nature of a racist experience can impair effective coping mechanisms and exacerbate negative outcomes. The study utilizes both survey and experimental methods to investigate these hypotheses, aiming to provide insights into the unique challenges faced by Black Canadians in navigating racial tensions within a purportedly multicultural society.

The researchers review existing literature on racism as a stressor, emphasizing the stress and coping framework and the significant impact of perceived pervasive racism on mental and physical health. They highlight the challenges to effective coping that arise when the racist nature of an experience is ambiguous. Ambiguity can create uncertainty about whether the behavior was intentional, whether the target deserved such treatment, and whether their own behavior elicited the negative response. This uncertainty can hinder the ability to label the interaction as racist, thus reducing the sense of injustice and limiting the mobilization of support and collective action. In contrast, overt racism allows for clear labeling and facilitates coping. The literature review further examines the role of ethnic identity and group regard. Positive self-regard might buffer against negative effects, while high public regard (perception of how others view the group) might introduce uncertainty in interpreting behaviors. The review also considers the intergroup dynamics involved, noting that witnesses to racism may experience distress and anger, especially with explicit acts. However, the impact of ambiguity and severity is yet to be fully untangled in the context of violence. The authors also highlight the limited attention given to subtle or ambiguous racism within Canada's multicultural context, despite growing awareness of the issue in other nations. The research therefore aims to fill this gap and analyze the consequences of ambiguous racism in this specific socio-political environment.

The study employed a mixed-methods approach with two distinct studies: a survey and an experiment. **Survey Study:** This study used a cross-sectional survey design to assess Black Canadians’ experiences of explicit and ambiguous racism, and the relationship between these experiences and emotional coping strategies (anger-out, anger-in) and depressive affect. A total of 158 Black Canadian participants completed the survey. Measures included the Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Questionnaire (explicit and ambiguous racism), Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (private and public regard), Multidimensional Anger Inventory (anger-out, anger-in), and the Beck Depression Inventory (depressive affect). Regression analyses examined the relationship between experiences of racism and outcomes, and the moderating roles of private and public regard. Mediation analyses tested whether anger coping mediated the relationship between racism and depressive affect. **Experimental Study:** This study utilized a 2 (ethnoracial group: Black vs. White) x 5 (racist cues: no racism, ambiguous mild, ambiguous violent, explicit mild, explicit violent) x 3 (video segment) mixed-measures ANOVA design. Participants (99 Black, 112 White Canadians) watched one of five videotaped interviews, each manipulating the level of ambiguity and severity of racist cues. Participants provided moment-to-moment distress ratings during the videos, and at specific time points they assessed whether discrimination occurred and the severity of the incident. Post-video measures included self-reported anger, and past discrimination experiences (Blacks) or modern racist attitudes (Whites). Saliva samples were collected at baseline and post-video to assess cortisol levels. Regression analyses explored the moderating effects of past racism experiences (Blacks) and modern racist attitudes (Whites) on appraisals and emotional responses. Further analyses examined the relationship between distress, anger, cortisol levels, and the video conditions, along with moderating variables.

**Survey Study:** Explicit racism was associated with greater anger-out and lower depressive affect, while ambiguous racism predicted greater anger-in and higher depressive affect. The relationship between ambiguous racism and depressive affect was stronger when controlling for explicit racism. High private regard (Black pride) was positively related to anger-out coping following explicit racism. High public regard (belief that others view Blacks positively) exacerbated the relationship between ambiguous racism and anger-in. Mediation analyses indicated that anger-out coping buffered the negative effects of explicit racism on depressive affect, whereas anger-in coping exacerbated the effects of ambiguous racism. **Experimental Study:** Both Black and White participants perceived explicit racist cues as more discriminatory than ambiguous cues, particularly in violent scenarios. However, Whites consistently rated discriminatory events as less serious and reported lower distress than Blacks. Black participants exhibited significantly greater distress in response to explicit racist cues, particularly in violent scenarios. This distress was uniquely associated with higher cortisol levels among Blacks, especially when physical violence was involved. While both groups showed increased anger in response to racist cues, this effect was more pronounced among Blacks and stronger for explicit cues. Past racism experience among Black participants increased their tendency to identify ambiguous events as discrimination. Among White participants, modern racist attitudes moderated their appraisals of discrimination and seriousness of events, with less racist individuals being more likely to recognize the discriminatory nature and impact of these events, even those involving ambiguity.

The findings demonstrate that both explicit and ambiguous racism differentially affect the psychological and physiological well-being of Black Canadians. The ambiguity inherent in subtle racism undermines effective coping strategies, leading to internalized anger and increased depressive affect. This is particularly pronounced when Black individuals perceive themselves as valued by society, creating uncertainty in their interpretation of ambiguous behaviors. The experimental study shows that while explicit racism evokes stronger reactions across groups, the experience and interpretation of racism differ substantially between Black and White Canadians. Whites are less likely to identify ambiguous events as discriminatory, even with violence. The unique association between distress and cortisol among Black participants highlights the physiological burden of racism, suggesting a potential pathway to long-term health problems. The moderating effects of past experiences and modern racism beliefs suggest that individual factors significantly shape how these cues are interpreted and responded to. The Canadian context, with its emphasis on multiculturalism, appears to be an obstacle to openly addressing systemic racism, thereby exacerbating the negative effects of ambiguous racial encounters.

The study provides crucial insights into the nuanced ways racism impacts Black Canadians and underscores the distinct responses of Black and White individuals to various forms of racism. Ambiguous racism poses a significant threat to well-being due to its capacity to undermine effective coping. Policy implications highlight the need to move beyond superficial celebrations of diversity to actively address systemic racism through open dialogue and tangible action. Future research could explore the role of specific coping styles in moderating the impact of ambiguous racism. Longitudinal studies could investigate the long-term physiological and psychological consequences of exposure to various forms of racism.

The cross-sectional nature of the survey limits causal inferences. The experimental study's reliance on videotaped scenarios might not fully capture the complexity of real-life experiences. The samples, while diverse, may not be fully representative of the entire Black Canadian population. Further, the study was conducted before the heightened awareness of racial injustice following the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests which could have influenced participants' perceptions and responses to racism.