The global apparel industry is a significant yet overlooked source of plastic leakage

Plastic pollution poses a severe global threat, potentially causing irreversible harm to aquatic life, ecosystems, and human health. The planetary boundary for chemical pollution, including plastics, is already exceeded, highlighting the urgency of addressing this problem. While primary microplastic emissions, particularly microfiber shedding from synthetic textiles during laundering, have received considerable attention, other sources remain understudied. These include microfiber emissions to air during wear and laundry drying, and macroplastic leakage from the disposal of synthetic apparel waste. The fast fashion industry and rising global middle-class consumption have significantly increased clothing production, making associated macro- and microplastic leakage a growing concern. This study aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of plastic pollution from the global apparel industry by evaluating plastic leakage across the entire apparel life cycle: production, manufacturing, use, second life, and disposal. The study focuses on global apparel consumption in 2019, considering all fiber types, with a particular emphasis on the apparel industry as the primary application for textiles. The study uses a combination of textile import data (EU, US, Japan), geospatial flows of new and used apparel based on 2019 consumption, and the Mismanaged Waste Index (MWI) to estimate macroplastic losses during waste disposal. The study aims to provide a midpoint estimate of plastic leakage, acknowledging the uncertainties inherent in the data used.

Existing literature highlights the significant contribution of synthetic microfiber shedding from clothing during laundering to primary microplastic emissions into water bodies (4-35%). However, there's a lack of quantified data on microfiber emissions into the air during wear and laundry drying, and macroplastic leakage from synthetic apparel waste disposal. The increasing demand for clothing, driven by a growing global middle class and fast fashion, necessitates a closer examination of this overlooked source of plastic pollution. Previous studies have quantified the global production and fate of plastics, and highlighted the challenges of managing plastic waste effectively. However, a comprehensive assessment of the apparel industry's specific contribution to plastic pollution has been lacking until now. The study utilizes existing frameworks and methodologies for assessing plastic footprints and microplastic emissions, but adapts and extends them to specifically address the unique challenges of quantifying plastic leakage from the complex global apparel supply chain.

This study employed a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach to quantify plastic leakage from the global apparel industry in 2019. The analysis covered seven major apparel markets (US, EU-28 high and low-income countries, Japan, China, India, Brazil) accounting for approximately 70% of global apparel consumption, plus a 'Rest of World' category. Data sources included trade data from Trade Data Monitor for the EU, US, and Japan, revealing that over 70% of textiles imported into these markets are apparel. Fiber types were categorized as synthetic (52% of global fiber production), cotton (23%), and others (25%). The study tracked apparel flows in primary (original sale and use) and secondary (used apparel exports) markets. Macroplastic losses during waste disposal were estimated using the Mismanaged Waste Index (MWI), a country-specific ratio of improperly managed waste to total waste generation. For certain countries, textile-specific MWIs were developed to refine the estimates. Apparel consumption was estimated for each market using a combination of production, import, and export data, employing net apparent consumption for cotton apparel and a more inferential approach for synthetic apparel, recognizing inherent uncertainties (particularly for China and 'Rest of World'). The study tracked plastic flows along the value chain (from raw material to disposal), including packaging, microplastic releases during washing (waterborne only), and macroplastic losses during waste disposal based on MWI for the primary and secondary markets of the garments. Uncertainty analysis was conducted to reflect uncertainties in consumption data and the MWI. The study accounts for the plastic waste and leakage occurring in secondary markets by attributing them to the primary markets where the apparel was originally sold. This avoids double counting and focuses on waste and leakage generation after sorting for export.

Global apparel consumption in 2019 was estimated at 32 million tons, with synthetic apparel accounting for 15 million tons. The global apparel sector generated an estimated 21 million tons of plastic waste, predominantly macroplastic. Synthetic apparel accounted for 89% of this waste, primarily from end-of-life textiles (81% of total apparel industry plastic waste). Packaging contributed only a small portion. Cotton apparel waste was largely driven by packaging, with some contribution from plastic mulching. Other fibers' waste mainly stemmed from packaging. The total plastic leakage from the global apparel industry in 2019 was estimated to be 8.3 million tons (4.8-12.3 Mt, 95% CI), representing 14% (5.5%-30%) of the estimated total annual plastic leakage (60 Mt). Mismanaged synthetic apparel waste in primary and secondary markets was the largest contributor to plastic leakage (6.6 Mt/year, 79% of total apparel sector leakage). Microplastic release from synthetic fiber washing accounted for less than 1.5% of total leakage. A geographic analysis of synthetic apparel plastic leakage showed that the Rest of the World, China, US, EU28 high-income, and India were major sources of plastic waste. However, the leakage patterns differed. For example, while China and India generated significant waste, a large proportion of leakage occurred in secondary markets due to high MWIs in those countries. In contrast, for high-income countries (EU28 high income, US, and Japan), much of the plastic leakage occurred in the secondary markets due to the export of used clothing, highlighting the global nature of the problem. The total leakage of synthetic apparel end-of-life in secondary markets was estimated to be 1.4 million tons per year (17% of total global apparel industry plastic leakage). Pakistan was identified as a key secondary market for used apparel exports from many primary markets.

This study demonstrates that the global apparel industry is a significant contributor to plastic pollution, with synthetic apparel being the primary driver. The findings underscore the need to address not only waste management in producing countries but also in secondary markets that receive used clothing exports. The large proportion of leakage occurring in countries with inadequate waste management infrastructure highlights the interconnectedness of global consumption patterns and environmental impacts. While the study focused on mass-based estimates of plastic leakage, future research should explore the implications of particle number and size, and their potential impacts on ecosystems and human health. The limitations in data availability and variability of MWI values should be acknowledged. The study primarily focused on waterborne microfiber releases and did not include airborne microfiber emissions or other forms of plastic leakage associated with the apparel value chain which could influence the actual values of the plastic leakage. Considering the methodological gaps identified in the study, the presented estimations should be considered as conservative estimates of the true extent of plastic leakage from the apparel industry. These findings underscore the urgent need for systemic change in the apparel industry, including design for durability, reuse, remanufacturing, and recycling; improved waste management infrastructure; and promoting the use of natural fibers.

This study quantifies the significant contribution of the global apparel industry, particularly synthetic textiles, to plastic pollution. Mismanaged waste in both primary and secondary markets is a major source of leakage. Addressing this requires a multi-pronged approach encompassing circular economy principles, improved waste management infrastructure, reduced synthetic fiber use, and enhanced sustainability practices across the entire supply chain. Future research should refine methods to account for all forms of plastic leakage and assess their respective impacts on the environment. The study provides crucial data to inform policy decisions and industry actions aimed at reducing the environmental footprint of the apparel industry.

The study acknowledges several limitations. First, the accuracy of the estimates relies heavily on the availability and reliability of data, particularly for apparel consumption in certain regions (e.g., China, Rest of the World). Second, the MWI, a crucial parameter influencing macroplastic leakage, has inherent uncertainty; while textile-specific MWIs were developed for certain regions, global data coverage needs improvement. Third, the study’s estimates do not include airborne microfiber emissions due to data limitations, potentially underestimating total microfiber emissions. Lastly, trade data on used apparel exports might not fully capture the final destination of the waste, potentially affecting the accuracy of leakage estimations in secondary markets.