Quantifying the diffusion history of Yangmingism

Yangmingism, a significant branch of Chinese Confucianism founded by Wang Shouren, emerged as a response to the limitations of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism in the context of social and economic changes during the Ming Dynasty. Its emphasis on "heart exploration" and its integration with other philosophical and religious traditions led to its rapid spread and significant influence. While experiencing periods of decline and revival, Yangmingism's impact continues to resonate in modern China and beyond, impacting political figures and scholars. President Xi Jinping's emphasis on Yangmingism's cultural significance underscores its contemporary relevance. Existing research largely focuses on philosophical and historical analyses, often limited in scope and lacking a comprehensive spatial perspective. This study addresses this gap by employing social network analysis (SNA) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to quantify and map the nationwide spread of Yangmingism during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The study frames the diffusion of Yangmingism within the theoretical framework of cultural diffusion, drawing upon neo-cultural geography's emphasis on human agency and subjectivity in shaping cultural processes. The research posits that the acceptance of Yangmingism, rather than mere knowledge, constitutes the primary indicator of cultural diffusion, viewing the acceptance regions as a "field" shaped by societal factors including transmitters and potential acceptors.

Prior research on Yangmingism has predominantly centered on philosophical interpretations and historical analyses of its development. While studies have explored its spread in specific regions, a holistic, quantitative, nationwide spatial analysis has been lacking. Existing studies frequently focus on Wang Yangming's immediate disciples, neglecting the broader network of individuals who embraced Yangmingist principles. This paper aims to remedy these shortcomings by employing quantitative methods and spatial analysis techniques to provide a more complete picture of Yangmingism's diffusion across China.

The study spans from 1508 (Wang Yangming's "Longchang Enlightenment") to 1911 (end of the Qing Dynasty), focusing on Confucian scholars who accepted Yangmingism. Data on these scholars and their activities were gathered from various sources, including historical chronicles, biographies, and academic works such as the *Ming Confucianism Case* and *Qing Confucianism Case*. The study period was divided into five phases: rise (1508-1529), peak (1530-1579), decline (1580-1644), revival (1645-1705), and trough (1706-1911). Social network analysis (SNA) was used to analyze the relationships between scholars and the flow of Yangmingist ideas between regions. Key metrics included in-degree and out-degree centrality, which measured the number of incoming and outgoing connections in the network respectively. This allowed for the identification of key figures and regions that played central roles in the dissemination of Yangmingism. The analysis also considered the two-way nature of transmission, investigating whether the roles of 'source' and 'target' regions could switch during the diffusion process. GIS spatial analysis methods were employed to visualize and quantify the spatial patterns of Yangmingism’s diffusion. Kernel density estimation (KDE) was used to map the intensity of Yangmingism's spread across different periods. The gravity model was applied to analyze the gravitational force between different regions based on the level of acceptance and distance. The formula used was: Fᵢⱼ = K (CᵢCⱼ)/dᵢⱼᵇ, where Fᵢⱼ represents the gravitational force, Cᵢ and Cⱼ represent the amount of acceptance in regions i and j, dᵢⱼ is the distance between regions i and j, and b is the distance friction coefficient. Gravity transformation models and standard deviation ellipses (SDEs) were utilized to characterize the direction, distance, and dispersion of the diffusion process. ArcGIS was employed for spatial data processing and analysis. The identification of acceptance regions was based on the zhou (approximately equivalent to prefecture-level cities), and judgments of acceptance were made according to a set of predefined criteria considering the scholarly writings and activities of the Confucian scholars. The study also differentiated between expansion and relocation diffusion based on the geographic distribution of the acceptors and disseminators across generations.

The study's key findings include: 1. **Temporal Pattern:** The diffusion of Yangmingism followed a five-phase pattern consistent with general cultural diffusion processes: rise, peak, decline, revival, and trough. 2. **Spatial Structure:** The spatial distribution of Yangmingism underwent a transformation from a polycentric structure in the initial phases to a more localized ribbon-like pattern and then to a monocentric structure before again becoming polycentric and finally fragmented. Initially, diffusion followed point-axis structures along traffic routes, transitioning to a core-periphery structure before returning to a point-axis pattern as diffusion potential energy decreased. 3. **Distance Decay:** The study observed clear distance decay effects, with the most extensive diffusion occurring within the Han cultural region, particularly concentrated in the middle and lower reaches of the Ganjiang River basin and the Yangtze River Delta. 4. **Hierarchical Influence:** The diffusion of Yangmingism was significantly influenced by administrative and cultural hierarchies. During the rise and peak phases, it spread to regions with higher levels of administration and culture, whereas the decline phase saw its diffusion to regions of lower hierarchy. 5. **Diffusion Types:** Relocation diffusion was identified as the primary mode of diffusion for Yangmingism, followed by expansion diffusion. The analysis revealed a noteworthy phenomenon of reverse diffusion, where Yangmingism spread from "target regions" back to "source regions". This was attributed to the attractiveness and radiating influence of high-ranking regions and subsequent cultural innovation in target regions. 6. **Core Areas:** The core regions of Yangmingism's diffusion were identified as the Yangtze River Delta and the middle-lower reaches of the Ganjiang River, exhibiting a classic core-periphery spatial structure. This was explained by several factors, including the interaction between artisan and literati groups, the existing prevalence of Confucianism, and the availability of dissemination media (academies and printing industry) in these areas. 7. **Diffusion Paths and Directions:** The study showed that diffusion paths and directions varied across different periods, typically along major waterways like the Grand Canal, Yangtze River, and Ganjiang River. In certain areas, such as northern China, diffusion was hindered by factors such as distance, the presence of competing ideologies (Zhuziology), and the physical geography (mountains). Detailed analyses are provided using figures illustrating kernel density estimates of Yangmingism acceptance across different periods, a gravity model of regional interactions, maps of acceptor's native places, standard deviation ellipses to visualize the changes in the center of gravity and spatial dispersion of the diffusion process, and diagrams illustrating the diffusion paths and directions in different periods.

The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the diffusion of religious and cultural ideas, particularly within a single civilizational context. The quantitative approach offers a more nuanced understanding of the spatio-temporal dynamics of Yangmingism's spread than previously possible. The identification of core regions, diffusion patterns, and the influence of hierarchical structures contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of this important historical and cultural phenomenon. The observation of reverse diffusion highlights the complex interplay of various factors—cultural innovation, regional attractiveness, and communication networks—in shaping the trajectory of cultural diffusion. The findings extend beyond the study of Yangmingism, offering a methodological framework for investigating the spread of other cultural and religious ideas.

This research provides a quantitative analysis of the spatio-temporal diffusion of Yangmingism in China during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The combination of social network analysis and GIS techniques offers a novel approach to understanding complex cultural diffusion processes. The five-phase diffusion pattern, shifting spatial structures, distance decay effects, hierarchical influences, and the prevalence of relocation diffusion supplemented by expansion diffusion are significant contributions. Future research could extend this work by incorporating data from a wider range of social groups beyond Confucian scholars, incorporating alternative quantitative methods, and examining the interactions between Yangmingism and other cultural and religious movements.

The study's focus on Confucian scholars as primary acceptors of Yangmingism represents a limitation. While providing valuable insights into the dissemination among this specific group, it excludes the broader population who may have also adopted Yangmingist ideas. The data available are also limited, potentially underrepresenting the true extent of Yangmingism's diffusion. Future research should aim to address these limitations by incorporating data from other sources and refining the methodologies used.