Online Volunteering and Subjective Well-being in China

Online volunteering has grown with the expansion of Internet technologies, yet its relationship with subjective well-being (SWB) is less studied than traditional volunteering. With over one billion Internet users, China presents a significant context to examine online volunteering. Prior studies link volunteering, social capital, and SWB, but few address online volunteering and the mediating role of online social networks. This study addresses two research questions in Chinese societies: (1) What is the relationship between online volunteering and SWB? (2) Do online bridging networks mediate the association between online volunteering and SWB?

Existing research indicates that volunteering builds social capital by expanding networks and trust, facilitating collective action (Wollebaek and Selle, 2002; Brown and Ferris, 2007; Wang and Graddy, 2008; Lin, 2021). Organizational studies show nonprofits’ online social capital can be associated with volunteer numbers (Lee and Shon, 2021), and trust/close ties influence Internet-based charitable activities in China (Li et al., 2019). Social capital is positively associated with SWB (Kawachi and Berkman, 2001; Helliwell, 2006; Helliwell and Putnam, 2004). Volunteering is linked to better SWB via purpose, self-esteem, social interaction, and health benefits (Thoits and Hewitt, 2001; Wilson and Musick, 2003; Lum and Lightfoot, 2005; Pilkington et al., 2012; Yeung et al., 2017). While volunteering and SWB show positive relationships, mechanisms are underexplored and may vary across contexts (Appau and Awaworyi Churchill, 2019; Lawton et al., 2021; Okulicz-Kozaryn and Morawski, 2021). Social networks relate positively to both volunteering and SWB (Van Ingen and Kalmijn, 2010; Fiori et al., 2006). In digital contexts, online social networks should be considered part of social capital (Achdut et al., 2021). Qualitative work suggests online volunteering yields benefits such as self-actualization and empowerment (Silva et al., 2018), though concerns remain regarding weaker interpersonal bonds and potential mental health risks associated with online networks (Amichai-Hamburger, 2008; Achdut et al., 2021). This study contributes empirical evidence on online volunteering, online bridging networks, and SWB in China.

Data source: 2019 Chinese General Social Survey (CSS), a nationally representative, multi-stage probability sample of Chinese residents aged 18–69. The 2019 wave (theme: Social Quality and Social Class Change) collected 10,283 valid interviews from 596 villages/communities in 149 cities/counties/districts nationwide via CAPI household interviews. This study includes respondents aged 18+ with data on online/offline volunteering and SWB (N=5556). Ethics approval and consent were not required due to use of secondary open data. Measures: - Dependent variable (SWB): Assessed by “How do you rate your life?” on a 1–10 scale; higher scores indicate higher life satisfaction. - Independent variables: Online volunteering and offline volunteering measured with binary items asking about participation in the past 24 months (formal volunteering). - Mediator: Online bridging social network measured as the count of online social group types (from 11 categories) respondents belonged to in the past two years, including family, friends, neighbors, colleagues, religious, fellowship, alumni, interest groups, public welfare groups, associations, and rights-protection groups. Cronbach’s alpha = 0.76. - Covariates: Gender (male=1, female=0), age (continuous), marital status (married=1, unmarried=0), education (1=no formal education to 5=bachelor and above), socioeconomic status (1=high to 5=low), and Internet use status. Analysis: Descriptive statistics followed by linear regressions testing (a) online volunteering → online bridging networks; (b) online volunteering and online bridging networks → SWB, adjusting for covariates and offline volunteering. Mediation assessed via regression framework: Y=cX+e1; M=aX+e2; Y=cX+bM+e3, with indirect effects estimated using bootstrapping. Analyses conducted in SPSS 24.0.

- Descriptive (n=5556): Mean SWB=7.04 (SD=2.226); offline volunteering=19.6%; online volunteering=3.7%; male=39.5%; mean age=44.09 (SD=14.68); married=78.1%; mean SES=3.69 (SD=0.927); online bridging network mean=2.617 (SD=2.403). - Regression (adjusted): • Online volunteering → online bridging network: b=0.3761, SE=0.1464, t=2.5684, p<0.05. • Online volunteering → SWB: b=0.0116, SE=0.1610, 95% CI [-0.3040, 0.3272], not significant. • Online bridging network → SWB: b=0.0301, SE=0.0147, t=2.0391, p<0.05. • Controls: Age negatively associated with bridging networks (b=-0.0629, p<0.001); education positively associated with bridging networks (b=0.6104, p<0.001) and SWB (b=0.1328, p<0.001); SES negatively associated with both bridging networks (b=-0.0819, p<0.01) and SWB (b=-0.7350, p<0.001); marital status positively associated with bridging networks (b=0.6167, p<0.001) and non-significantly negative for SWB; offline volunteering positively associated with bridging networks (b=0.4406, p<0.001) and SWB (b=0.1788, p<0.05). • Model fit: R^2≈0.3735 for bridging networks; ≈0.1193 for SWB; F-statistics significant. - Mediation: Indirect effect of online volunteering on SWB via online bridging networks = 0.0113 (Boot SE=0.0075, 95% Boot CI [0.0011, 0.0328]); direct effect not significant (0.0116, 95% CI [-0.3040, 0.3272]).

Findings indicate that online volunteering is associated with larger online bridging networks, and these networks, in turn, are positively related to SWB. The absence of a direct effect of online volunteering on SWB combined with a significant indirect effect suggests that the benefits of online volunteering for well-being operate through enhanced online social connectedness, consistent with social capital theory. This extends prior work on offline volunteering to the digital context in China, showing that online forms of engagement can build bridging social capital that supports life satisfaction. The results underscore the importance of fostering online social infrastructures for volunteers to translate engagement into well-being gains. Practically, encouraging and structuring online volunteer communities may help nonprofits and policymakers leverage digital participation to promote public health and social cohesion, while considering demographic and socioeconomic disparities that shape access and outcomes.

This study contributes the first large-scale empirical evidence from China showing that online volunteering improves subjective well-being indirectly through building online bridging networks. It clarifies a mechanism linking digital prosocial behavior to SWB and highlights the role of social capital in the online sphere. Policy and practice implications include supporting online volunteering programs, establishing and nurturing online social networks for volunteers, and investing in digital literacy to enhance service quality and inclusion (e.g., enabling participation by people with disabilities). Future research should use longitudinal designs to strengthen causal inference, detail types and intensity of online volunteering, consider organizational context (local vs. international), and examine how psychological distance and digital divide factors moderate impacts.

- Cross-sectional design limits causal inference regarding relationships among online volunteering, online bridging networks, and SWB. - Potential bidirectionality: individuals with greater social capital may be more likely to volunteer online, and volunteering may further build social networks. - Measurement constraints: lack of detailed data on specific online volunteering activities (e.g., content management, professional services, advocacy, data analysis) and participation intensity. - Possible moderating factors not measured, such as psychological distance and type/scale of volunteering organizations (local vs. international). - Digital divide and unequal access to Internet/digital skills may limit participation and benefits of online volunteering, affecting generalizability.