Microchemical analysis of Leonardo da Vinci's lead white paints reveals knowledge and control over pigment scattering properties

This study analyzes a rare microsample from Leonardo da Vinci’s The Virgin and Child with St. Anne (Musée du Louvre) using synchrotron-based hyperspectral photoluminescence (PL) imaging and high-angular resolution X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results demonstrate Leonardo’s deliberate use of two subtypes of lead white pigment in adjacent layers, indicating precise knowledge and selection of materials to achieve specific pictorial effects. The work reveals semi-quantitative spatial distributions of hydrocerussite and cerussite via deep-UV excited PL validated by synchrotron XRD, provides insights into how Leonardo may have obtained these pigment grades, and proposes optical and working properties (including scattering behavior) he likely sought to achieve.