Long-term rice consumption containing heavy metals poses significant health risks. This study analyzed heavy metal concentrations in rice from 32 Chinese provinces using probability and fuzzy methods to account for spatial variability and uncertainty. Results showed that even rice meeting national food safety standards can cause non-negligible health risks, especially for children. Arsenic and cadmium were the most critical elements. Fuzzy assessment indicated higher risks in southern China. The study suggests tailoring food safety standards to local conditions and specific receptor parameters.
