Sustainable natural resource management (NRM) increasingly emphasizes co-creation of strategies through learning approaches, rather than relying on technocratic models. While technological advancements are important, technocratic models often obscure collective understanding of complexities and competing truths in sustainable development (SD) agendas. Knowledge for sustainable NRM is viewed as a relational achievement, a result of human-biophysical world interactions. Social learning (SL) is highlighted as a crucial process for co-creation, but its diverse conceptualizations and applications necessitate a deeper understanding of its patterns based on empirical evidence. This study focuses on identifying archetypical pathways of SL in NRM and examining their occurrence in different social and geopolitical contexts, particularly comparing the Global North and Global South. The working hypothesis is based on previous studies suggesting the emergence of distinct SL patterns in communities of the Global South, which are characterized as Endogenous SL. A second type, Exogenous SL, involving interactions with external actors, is also considered. The study aims to empirically investigate these hypotheses by analyzing a large dataset of case studies.

The study systematically reviewed 109 peer-reviewed articles (137 individual cases) focusing on empirical studies of social learning in natural resource management (NRM). The search used keywords like "social learning" and "natural resource management," and included articles explicitly analyzing social learning processes, relating them to sustainability and NRM, and providing empirical data. Non-empirical literature and cases lacking human group collaboration were excluded. The review followed PRISMA guidelines, ensuring rigorous quality assessment and selection criteria to ensure comparability and relevance to the research questions. One category, "Conflict," was excluded due to inconsistent data, but the impact on the overall analysis was considered minimal as it is an independent variable. Articles employing methods related to computer games were also excluded to maintain methodological consistency.

The study employed a four-step approach: (1) development of an analytical framework; (2) case study selection; (3) case study classification; and (4) clustering and definition of archetypes. The analytical framework synthesized insights from seminal studies, delineating essential characteristics of social learning in terms of materials, processes, actors, methodologies, resources, and outcomes. It was structured around three dimensions: outputs, inputs, and geopolitical context. Ten key characteristics of social learning were defined as categories of analysis, categorized as objective or subjective to address the inherent heterogeneity in methods across the selected studies. Case study selection involved a systematic literature review using the Web of Science and ScienceDirect databases, with strict inclusion and exclusion criteria as detailed in Table 1. A PRISMA flowchart (Fig. 2) illustrated the review process. Content analysis was conducted using the ten analytical categories (Table 2), with inter-rater checks ensuring consistency. Archetype analysis was then performed using Pearson's bivariate correlations to identify significant correlations between categories and patterns distinguishing archetypes. Network graphs (Figs. 3 and 4) were created to visualize these correlations, and a cartographic representation (Fig. 6) compared the occurrence of Endogenous and Exogenous SL at the country level. Data treatment included calculating Pearson correlations using Python and creating network graphs to show significant, positive, and negative correlations between the categories of analysis, and specifically their relation to SL archetypes. The study acknowledges the limitations imposed by methodological heterogeneity and the simplified Global North-South dichotomy.

The analysis revealed two main archetypes of social learning in NRM: endogenous and exogenous. Endogenous SL is characterized by learning-by-doing methods, scarcity of financial resources, a focus on community development, engagement of community individuals, and prevalence in the Global South, particularly Latin America. Exogenous SL, conversely, is associated with pre-established methods, financial resource availability, a focus on environmental knowledge and political agreements, and prevalence in the Global North, especially Europe. Of 137 cases, 33 were classified as purely endogenous, 90 as exogenous, and 14 showed unclear patterns. The strongest correlations for each archetype involved the inputs: financial resources, method applied, and types of participants. Although distinguishable, the archetypes are not mutually exclusive. Figure 5 hierarchically represents the essential features of each archetype, outlining their inputs, outputs, and geopolitical contexts. Figure 6 maps the geographical distribution of Endogenous and Exogenous SL at the country level. The findings indicate that geopolitical context plays a significant role in shaping the characteristics and outcomes of social learning processes in NRM.

The findings support the hypothesis that different patterns of social learning exist, strongly influenced by geopolitical context. Endogenous SL, prevalent in the Global South, often emerges in response to multiple crises, in the absence of functional governance and public policies. It is driven by community needs and involves self-determined priorities for local development. This contrasts with Exogenous SL, more common in the Global North, which focuses on political agreements and scientific recommendations for broader sustainability transitions. The study highlights the potential of Endogenous SL in the Global South as a catalyst for deliberative processes towards sustainable NRM. The difference in the two archetypes may be linked to power dynamics and resource availability. The study acknowledges the limitations of the North-South dichotomy and suggests future research exploring governance systems, different levels of social learning, and sub-archetypes.

This study identified two primary archetypes of social learning in NRM: endogenous and exogenous, highlighting the influence of geopolitical context on their characteristics and outcomes. Endogenous SL, prevalent in the Global South, offers valuable insights for sustainable development. Future research should investigate governance systems, pedagogies, and the interplay between endogenous and exogenous approaches. Further research is needed to fully explore the diversity of social learning models, including those underrepresented in existing literature, particularly community-based approaches in the Global South.

The study acknowledges several limitations. Methodological heterogeneity across the reviewed literature posed challenges to comparability. The Global North-South divide is a simplification of complex realities, and variations within these groups exist. Furthermore, some social learning cases may be described using different terminology, and the focus on 'sustainable natural resource management' may exclude relevant cases. Finally, social learning models from marginalized communities in the Global South may be underrepresented due to limited reporting in scientific literature.