Experiences of food poverty among undocumented parents with children in three European countries: a multi-level research strategy

Undocumented migrants in Europe face a high risk of extreme poverty and multiple deprivations, often excluded from welfare services and the formal labor market. While existing research highlights the general challenges faced by undocumented migrants, there's a comparative gap in understanding how the social context of different European countries influences their access to resources and their experience of material deprivation. This study employs a realist approach to examine the complex interaction of societal, historical, and individual factors contributing to food poverty among low-income families with children aged 11-15 in the UK, Portugal, and Norway, post-2008 financial crisis. The research design is innovative in its multi-level approach, analyzing macro-level public policy, meso-level local institutions and informal networks, and micro-level household practices. This strategy allows for a detailed understanding of how access to resources, particularly food, is shaped and how families manage and experience food poverty in various contexts. The study contributes to both methodological advancements in comparative migration research and crucial knowledge on an under-researched population in an increasingly hostile European environment.

The existing literature extensively addresses the challenges faced by undocumented migrants in Europe, focusing largely on their exclusion from welfare and healthcare services. However, comparative studies analyzing the impact of varying social contexts on resource access and experiences of material deprivation among these families are limited. This study bridges this gap by examining food poverty, a critical aspect of material deprivation, within a comparative framework. Research estimates indicate a substantial undocumented migrant population across European Union member states, highlighting the urgency to understand their unique vulnerabilities. The 2008 financial crisis and subsequent austerity measures further exacerbated their difficulties, while the pandemic has intensified their struggles across financial, housing, and food security dimensions.

The study, "Families and Food in Hard Times," utilized a mixed-methods, multi-level research design to investigate the experiences of food poverty among low-income families with children aged 11-15 in the UK, Portugal, and Norway. The selection of these countries provided a "contrast of contexts," reflecting different levels of austerity measures following the 2008 financial crisis. The study began with a secondary analysis of international and national datasets, examining existing policies, programs, and reports related to families, food, and poverty in each country. This macro-level analysis established the context for the qualitative research phase. Intensive qualitative research was then conducted with 133 low-income households, with equal distribution across the three countries. The sampling strategy included families residing in both capital cities and less urbanized areas. Data collection methods included semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, and visual methods with both parents (primarily mothers) and children. The study employed a realist ontological stance, enabling a multi-layered understanding of the conditions and processes shaping outcomes and experiences. This approach allowed for a fusion of quantitative and qualitative data, considering the interplay between structure and agency. By comparing experiences across multiple levels (macro, meso, and micro), the study avoided solely attributing differences to national-level factors, acknowledging the complex interactions influencing food insecurity. The multi-level strategy explored macro-level public policy, meso-level institutional and informal support networks, and micro-level household practices and individual strategies, enabling a nuanced understanding of the interplay between factors.

The study presented three case studies, one from each country, focusing on families headed by undocumented migrant parents. These cases illustrated how various levels of context intersect to shape families' ability to procure and manage food. **Morowa (UK):** Morowa, a lone mother from a former British colony in West Africa, lost her work permit and access to public funds. Her children were ineligible for free school meals due to their undocumented status, leading to hunger and social exclusion at school. Limited support from social services and food banks left the family extremely vulnerable, with Morowa often foregoing food to ensure her children ate. **Maria (Portugal):** Maria, also a lone mother from Angola, worked in the informal economy with low wages. While her son received some state support for lacking documentation, her low income, unresolved legal issues, and reliance on informal support networks left the family struggling. The availability of free school meals mitigated some food insecurity, but the overall situation remained precarious, leading Maria to resort to stealing food on occasion. **Zeinab (Norway):** Zeinab's family, though granted asylum and residency, faced challenges due to her husband's undocumented status and his inability to access social security. While Norway's generous welfare state provided some financial support, the costs of school lunches and other expenses created considerable strain. The family often relied on budget-friendly staples and strategies like buying in bulk. Despite the family's relatively better circumstances compared to the other cases, they experienced difficulties in managing their finances and feeding their large family. Comparative analysis highlighted significant differences in the macro and meso levels across the three countries. Portugal, with less stringent immigration laws, offered greater access to informal labor, healthcare, and free school meals. In contrast, the UK's restrictive policies severely limited access to resources, resulting in stark food insecurity. The study underscores the need for integrated policies to ensure food security, addressing both national legislation and local services to protect families from hunger and social exclusion.

The findings demonstrate that food poverty among undocumented migrant families is not simply a consequence of low income but a complex outcome of intersecting factors at multiple levels of social context. The comparative analysis highlights that while individual agency plays a role in managing resources and navigating hardship, the structural conditions imposed by national policies and local services have substantial impacts. The significant variation between the UK, Portugal, and Norway demonstrates that policies concerning immigration, access to social benefits, and free school meals significantly affect families' abilities to meet their basic needs. The cases reveal that even within families who have legal status (as was the case with Zeinab's family), they are not immune to the financial pressures exerted by living on low incomes and having a large family to feed. These findings underscore the need for joined-up policies across the macro and meso levels to address food insecurity among vulnerable populations, emphasizing the critical role of national laws and local service provision in ensuring basic human rights.

This study offers valuable insights into the complex experiences of food poverty among undocumented migrant families in three diverse European contexts. The multi-level research design demonstrates the importance of analyzing the interplay of macro-level policies, meso-level institutional factors, and micro-level household strategies in understanding these experiences. The findings highlight the urgent need for policies that address not only income poverty but also ensure access to essential services like free school meals and social support. Future research could explore the long-term consequences of food insecurity on the health and well-being of children in these families, and examine the effectiveness of different policy interventions in reducing food poverty.

The study's reliance on a small number of case studies limits the generalizability of its findings. While the cases offer rich qualitative data, the relatively small sample size of undocumented families within each country limits the statistical power to generalize the findings more broadly. Future studies would benefit from larger, more representative samples to enhance generalizability. Additionally, the time frame of the study may not fully capture the evolving impacts of changing policies and economic conditions.