Ethnic Discrimination in Scandinavia: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Women's Amateur Soccer

The study investigates whether women with foreign-sounding names experience ethnic discrimination when seeking to join amateur soccer clubs in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. The context is the growing importance of social integration for immigrants and minorities and the potential of organized sport to foster inter-ethnic contact. Prior research documents persistent ethnic discrimination in Scandinavian labor markets and recent evidence in men’s soccer, but little is known about women, where gender and ethnicity may intersect. Given Scandinavia’s reputation for tolerance and gender equality, one might expect low discrimination in clubs; however, country differences could be substantial. The research tests acceptance or rejection of trial requests as an indicator of discrimination and explores whether coach gender relates to discriminatory behavior.

Discrimination is extensively studied in labor markets, with field experiments revealing name-based discrimination. Soccer try-outs in amateur clubs involve lower risk than hiring, and amateur participation lacks economic incentives. Sport is promoted as a tool for social integration, creating informal intergroup contact, though some scholars question its integrative potential. Prior field experiments (e.g., Nesseler et al., 2019; Gomez-Gonzalez et al., 2020, 2021) show barriers to social integration and discrimination in men’s amateur soccer across Europe, including Scandinavia. Intersectionality suggests ethnic minority women may face distinct stereotypes versus men. Social dominance theory posits men are more targeted due to perceived threat, while social cognition theory suggests reliance on accurate information when decision-makers depend on out-group members; women’s clubs needing players may therefore discriminate less. Ethnic hierarchies relate prejudice to cultural distance and socio-economic status, implying groups culturally distant from the majority may experience more discrimination.

Field experiment contacting the universe of women’s amateur senior soccer clubs in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway: 1,141 clubs identified, with one team randomly selected per club where multiple teams existed. Coaches were emailed (in the local language) a standardized message requesting a trial session during October 1–3, 2020, from Gmail accounts created for fictitious applicants. Names signaled either native origin or foreign origin belonging to each country’s three largest foreign-origin groups (e.g., Sweden: Finnish, Polish, Iraqi; Norway: Polish, Lithuanian, Somali; Denmark: Polish, Turkish, Syrian). Names were randomly assigned to clubs with regional balance; each club received one email and no coach was contacted at more than one club. Responses were categorized as positive, positive with additional questions, or negative; non-responses and negatives were combined as not positive. Applicants who received positive responses withdrew within 48 hours per ethical requirements. Coach gender and team division level were recorded. Analytical approach: logistic regressions (and robustness OLS with binary DV) estimated probability of positive reply as a function of foreign vs native-sounding name (and, in a second model, the three minority groups), controlling for coach gender and division. Separate models were run for each country. Power calculations indicated only response rate differences of about 0.15 or greater were likely to reach statistical significance in Norway and Denmark, so those results are interpreted cautiously.

- Overall positive response rates: Sweden 69.17% (N=665), Norway 75.29% (N=259), Denmark 62.67% (N=207). - Native vs foreign-sounding names had higher positive response rates in all three countries: Sweden +10.15 percentage points (76.88% vs 66.73%), Norway +7.48 ppt (80.95% vs 73.47%), Denmark +4.97 ppt (69.57% vs 64.60%). - Logistic regressions (Table 5): foreign-sounding name significantly reduces the likelihood of a positive reply in Sweden (coef −0.506, p<0.05). Effects are negative but not statistically significant in Norway (−0.473) and Denmark (−0.228). Coach being a woman is negative in all three, marginally significant in Norway (−0.620, p<0.10). Division level is not significant. - By minority group (Table 6): In Sweden, compared to Swedish-sounding names, Finnish-sounding is negative but not significant; Polish-sounding is negative (p<0.05); Iraqi-sounding is negative (p<0.01). Predicted positive reply probabilities (approx.): Swedish 76.87%, Finnish 72.27%, Polish 65.12%, Iraqi 62.28%. - In Norway, only Lithuanian-sounding shows a marginally significant negative effect (p<0.10); Polish- and Somali-sounding are not significant. In Denmark, no minority group effect is significant. - Women’s teams show higher overall positive response rates and smaller native–foreign gaps than observed previously for men’s teams, suggesting reduced discrimination when clubs depend on players.

Findings indicate statistically significant ethnic discrimination against women with foreign-sounding names in Sweden, with the magnitude increasing with cultural/geographical distance (strongest for Iraqi-sounding, then Polish-sounding, Finnish-sounding not significant). This aligns with ethnic hierarchy theories linking prejudice to cultural distance. In Norway and Denmark, estimated effects are negative but not statistically significant, consistent with lower statistical power and potentially weaker discriminatory behavior in women’s amateur soccer. The higher acceptance rates and smaller gaps relative to men’s teams support the notion that dependence on players can reduce reliance on stereotypes. Country differences may reflect broader societal dynamics; Sweden’s larger minority populations and publicized social challenges may contribute to reinforced negative stereotypes and discriminatory patterns. Gender of coaches shows minimal differences overall, with a slight tendency for female coaches in Norway to be less likely to respond positively, suggesting context-specific gender effects. Overall, results partially confirm the hypothesis of ethnic discrimination, primarily in Sweden, and highlight cross-national variation.

The study demonstrates that ethnic discrimination against women seeking to join amateur soccer teams is present in Sweden and increases with cultural distance (Iraqi- and Polish-sounding names significantly disadvantaged), while no statistically significant effects are detected in Norway and Denmark. Compared with men’s soccer, women’s teams display higher acceptance rates and smaller native–foreign gaps, consistent with the idea that clubs’ dependence on players reduces discriminatory behavior. These findings suggest meaningful cross-country and gender-related differences and point to the potential of women’s amateur soccer—particularly in Denmark and Norway—as a venue for social inclusion of minority women. Practical implications include fostering structured, inclusive recruitment, increasing positive intergroup contact, and employing heterogeneous decision-making groups. Future research should examine mechanisms behind Sweden’s patterns, test across other sports (team vs individual), and broaden the range of minority groups to assess generalizability.

- Geographic and sample constraints: Only three Scandinavian countries; smaller sample sizes in Norway and Denmark limit statistical power and inference. - Group selection: Focus on each country’s three largest foreign-origin groups; other ethnicities, particularly those with greater cultural distance, may experience different levels of discrimination. - Sport-specific context: Results pertain to women’s amateur soccer; findings may not generalize to other sports or to professional settings. - Measurement: Outcome is initial positive reply to a trial request; non-responses and negatives combined; does not capture later-stage selection or treatment after try-outs. - Temporal context: Data collected over a short window (Oct 1–3, 2020) during the pandemic period when activities were largely normal but contextual factors may still have influenced responses.