Ecolinguistic dynamics of English loanwords in Chinese: a case study on terms for cement

The paper investigates how English loanwords in Chinese emerge, compete, adapt, and potentially become endangered within changing ecological environments. It motivates the study by noting that lexical borrowing is the most immediate effect of language contact, while prior work on English loanwords in Chinese has been predominantly static and qualitative, with limited attention to external environmental factors. Adopting an ecolinguistic perspective, the study aims to quantify the ecology of loanwords and reveal their metabolism and driving factors across temporal, spatial, and functional dimensions. It addresses three research questions: (1) In what contexts do the English loanwords in Chinese emerge? (2) Do environments influence the vitalities of these loanwords, and if so, how? (3) What causes the endangerment of these loanwords? The study expects to provide insights into the sustainable development of vocabulary through a dynamic ecolinguistic approach.

The review outlines foundational concepts of loanwords and language contact, noting that borrowings adapt phonologically, morphologically, and grammatically (Haugen, Thomason & Kaufman, Aitchison, Winford, Haspelmath, Durkin). It distinguishes cultural, intimate, and dialectal borrowings (Bloomfield) and the roles of cultural vs. core vs. therapeutic borrowings. Cross-language studies show diverse assimilation paths and semantic shifts (Crystal; Hock & Joseph; Zenner et al.; Aitchison). Chinese-focused works span etymology, culture, statistics, functional linguistics, phonology, pragmatics, and localization (Gao & Liu; Liu et al.; Masini; Shi; Luo; Zhou & You; Chan & Kwok; Su; Zhong; Zhou; Yang; Zhang; Yu; Shao; Li; Dang). Theoretical frameworks include Haugen’s stages of importation/substitution/integration; Matrix Language Frame (Myers-Scotton); prestige and dominance factors (Winford); global spread via digital media (Fromkin et al.); and variationist perspectives (Poplack). The review identifies gaps: dominance of static over dynamic analyses, overreliance on qualitative methods, and insufficient consideration of external ecology. Ecolinguistics is presented as a dynamic approach integrating language and environment with Haugenian (environment on language) and Hallidayan (language on environment) paradigms, covering language ecology, diversity, contact, variation, vitality, endangerment, evolution, discourse, landscapes, green grammar, ecological philosophy, and planning. Key concepts include niche theory in linguistics (Li), PSR assessment model (Xiao & Fan), Linguistic Niche Hypothesis (Dale & Lupyan), and recent models such as the Ecolinguistic Continuum and Multi-dimensional Alignment Continuum (Xiao) and the Multidimensional Alignment Sustainability Model (Xiao et al.). These frameworks justify a quantitative, ecologically grounded analysis of loanwords’ dynamics.

Research object: The study adopts a broad definition of loanwords (including transliterations and calques) and focuses on five English-related terms for cement listed in Modern Chinese Dictionary (MCD1–MCD7): ShuiMenTing (水门汀), ShiMinTu (士敏土), HongMaoNi (红毛泥), YangHui (洋灰), and ShuiNi (水泥). The first two are transliterations; the last three are semantic translations. Data sources: Dictionaries (Modern Chinese Dictionary 1–7 editions; Great Chinese Dictionary 2024; Modern Chinese Standard Dictionary 2023; Dictionary of Loanwords in Chinese 1984; Xinhua Dictionary of Loanwords 2019), Atlas of Chinese Dialects (2008), and corpora (BCC 2024; MLC 2024; CCL 2024). Diachronic corpora T1–T4 were constructed from BCC and MLC for temporal niches; synchronic corpora D1–D7 were built from 930 survey points categorized into seven dialect areas for spatial niches; five genre corpora (C1 Literature; C2 Science/Technology; C3 Blogs; C4 Newspaper; C5 TV/Broadcast) were used for functional niches. Methods: The study introduces Lexical Niche, encompassing temporal (historical periods), spatial (dialectal regions), and functional (genres) distributions. Vitality is operationalized via niche breadth (Levins, 1968) and niche overlap (Pianka, 1973). Formulas were implemented using R 4.4.1 (niche breadth computation) and Python 3.12 (visualization). Classification of translation method and lexical location was performed by multiple annotators with consensus resolution. A questionnaire (lexical acknowledgment) with N=1169 respondents was administered via WeChat to validate vitality measures; demographic variables included gender, age, education, hometown, and profession. Hypotheses posit that external environments (natural/geographic, social, cultural, psychological) and internal linguistic environments (phonetics, morphology, semantics, grammar) influence emergence, vitality, and endangerment.

- Emergence: 37 translated terms for cement were identified across sources, with earliest attestations post-1824 (the invention of Portland cement). Earliest examples include uses in 1882–1903 sources; the influx aligns with China’s Westernization Movement (1860s–1890s) and early cement factories (e.g., 1886 Macau Green Island YingNi; 1889 Tangshan XiMianTu; 1907 regional factories). Of these, five terms entered the MCD: ShuiNi, YangHui, HongMaoNi, ShiMinTu, ShuiMenTing. - Vitality via niche breadth (mean across temporal, spatial, functional): ShuiNi 3.221 (wide niche), YangHui 2.350 (medium), ShuiMenTing 1.385 (narrow), HongMaoNi 1.202 (narrow), ShiMinTu 0.879 (narrow). This ordering mirrors dictionary retention: ShiMinTu removed after MCD2; HongMaoNi and ShuiMenTing removed after MCD4; current MCD7 retains ShuiNi and YangHui. - Temporal dynamics (frequencies T1–T4): Peaks in 1913–1949 for major variants; post-1950 declines for non-standard forms; post-1979 dominance of ShuiNi. Temporal niche breadths: ShuiNi 2.874 (largest), HongMaoNi 2.314; YangHui 1.788; ShiMinTu 1.495; ShuiMenTing 1.044 (smallest). - Spatial distribution (930 sites, seven dialect areas): ShiMinTu absent (spatial niche 0.000). ShuiMenTing concentrated in Wu (D2) with limited spread. HongMaoNi concentrated in Cantonese (D6) with sporadic others. YangHui widespread in Official dialect areas but uneven overall (spatial niche 2.497). ShuiNi present across all regions (spatial niche 5.505, highest vitality). - Functional distribution (five genres): HongMaoNi zero across all. ShiMinTu only in Literature (C1). ShuiMenTing and YangHui mostly in Literature with low frequencies. ShuiNi dominates Sci/Tech (C2) and appears across all genres. Functional niche breadths: YangHui 2.765 (widest), ShuiMenTing 2.075; ShuiNi 1.283; ShiMinTu 1.142; HongMaoNi 0.000. - Competition (niche overlap): High temporal overlap between ShiMinTu and ShuiMenTing (0.98894) indicates intense competition among similarly aged variants; lowest between HongMaoNi and ShuiNi (0.35736). Highest spatial overlap between ShuiNi and YangHui (0.84197) indicates strong competition within Official/Mandarin domains; ShiMinTu shows zero spatial overlap with others. Highest functional overlap between YangHui and ShuiMenTing (0.98263); HongMaoNi shows zero functional overlap with others. - Adaptation and internal ecology: Translation mode and word length affect adaptation. Two-syllable forms (ShuiNi, YangHui) align with modern Chinese preference and Zipf’s least effort; three-syllable forms (HongMaoNi, ShiMinTu, ShuiMenTing) are less adaptive. Adaptation scores (max 20): ShuiNi 13; YangHui 10; HongMaoNi 8; ShiMinTu 7; ShuiMenTing 6. - Demographic correlates (Spearman’s rho, N=1169): Age shows weak negative correlation with usage (-0.095, p=0.001); hometown shows moderate positive correlation (0.295, p<0.001); gender, education, profession not significant. - Endangerment continuum: ShiMinTu extinct in the wild; HongMaoNi critically endangered; ShuiMenTing endangered; YangHui vulnerable; ShuiNi least concern.

The findings answer the research questions by linking the emergence of cement-related loanwords to the Westernization Movement and industrial introduction of cement in the 1880s, demonstrating that societal influxes of technology create lexical demand. Environmental factors shape vitality: broader temporal, spatial, and functional niches correspond to higher vitality and long-term survival (e.g., ShuiNi), while narrow niches lead to decline (e.g., ShiMinTu, HongMaoNi, ShuiMenTing). Niche overlaps reveal arenas of competition where synonyms vie for dominance; the strong overlap between ShuiNi and YangHui in space underscores sustained competition within standard and regional registers, while zero overlap for ShiMinTu indicates loss of ecological foothold. Adaptation mechanisms clarify why some forms win: two-syllable, semantically transparent calques (ShuiNi) integrate smoothly into Mandarin usage and formal domains; three-syllable transliterations or regionally marked terms face cognitive and stylistic disadvantages under the principle of least effort and modern Chinese disyllabic tendencies. Demographic analysis shows geography (hometown/dialect background) and, to a lesser extent, age influence acknowledgment and use, aligning with the role of natural and psychological ecologies in the ecolinguistic framework. The eco-continuum observed in enterprise naming (XiMianTu → YangHui → ShuiNi) and dictionary curation tracks natural selection among variants, with institutional standardization reflecting mass usage. Overall, the dynamic ecolinguistic approach and quantified niche measures effectively capture the metabolism of loanwords and their sustainability within the Chinese lexicon.

Loanwords mirror socio-technological change; the introduction of cement into China in the 1880s generated a burst of lexical innovations, of which five became dictionary-recognized. Applying a dynamic ecolinguistic approach with lexical niche metrics demonstrates that survival depends on niche breadth and competition: ShuiNi, with a wide niche and strong adaptation, is the most resilient and likely to persist; YangHui shows moderate sustainability; ShiMinTu, HongMaoNi, and ShuiMenTing, constrained by narrow niches and weaker adaptation, have become endangered or obsolete. The study validates lexical metabolism as a useful concept and shows that both external ecologies (social, cultural, geographic, psychological) and internal linguistic factors (phonology, morphology, semantics, grammar) jointly determine outcomes. Methodologically, quantifying niche breadth and overlap adds statistical rigor to loanword ecology research and informs pedagogy by highlighting conditions that favor retention and usage. Future research should broaden scope beyond one semantic field and explore reciprocal effects of loanwords on environments, across more languages and domains, using larger datasets and comprehensive mixed methods.

The study focuses narrowly on English loanwords for cement in Chinese with a small sample (five focal terms), limiting generalizability across domains and languages. Due to space, it analyzes how environments affect loanwords but not how loanwords influence environments. Functional corpora and regional data, while extensive, may still underrepresent spoken usage in some communities. Future work should expand to multiple semantic fields, include more donor/recipient languages, and examine bidirectional language-environment impacts with larger, diversified corpora.