Attitude toward gender inequality in China

Traditional patrilineal practices in Chinese households historically disadvantaged women, restricting their roles primarily to domestic affairs. The socialist revolution of 1949 aimed to overturn this patriarchal system, promoting an egalitarian ideology symbolized by Mao's declaration that "women can hold up half the sky." This led to increased female labor participation. However, the implementation of the one-child policy in the late 1970s inadvertently revived traditional son preference, resulting in a skewed sex ratio and practices like female infanticide and sex-selective abortion. While China has made progress in women's economic and political participation, persistent gender inequality remains evident in various aspects, including an imbalanced sex ratio, underrepresentation in leadership positions, prevalence of domestic violence, and challenges faced by women in balancing career and family responsibilities. The Global Gender Gap Report 2020 ranked China 106th out of 153 countries in overall gender equality. This study aims to identify the individual-level determinants of attitudes toward gender inequality in China by examining thoughts about women's roles in career and family. The study also seeks to determine whether attitudes are becoming more egalitarian over time and to compare attitudes between urban and rural areas, given the more pronounced gender inequality often observed in rural settings. The research explores how factors like education, income, relative resources within married couples, and the influence of patrilineal values shape perceptions of gender roles.

Existing research reveals varying patterns between levels of gender inequality and development. Studies show that women in more developed countries tend to enjoy more equal educational opportunities and longer life expectancies. This has been attributed to the decreasing reliance on physically demanding labor in developed economies. Other studies emphasize the role of culture, with patrilineal societies exhibiting more skewed sex ratios and unequal distribution of healthcare between genders. Gender equality has been linked to positive outcomes like increased life satisfaction and economic growth. However, while aggregate-level studies provide insights into national-level trends, fewer studies examine individual-level attitudes and practices. Some research suggests that children's views on gender equality are influenced by their parents, while others have found that men with higher education, income, and childhood exposure to gender equality tend to be more supportive of women's rights. Other relevant research has examined factors like religious beliefs, ethnic backgrounds, age, and political affiliations, demonstrating their effects on various attitudes, thereby highlighting the diverse influences affecting individuals' viewpoints on gender equality.

This study utilizes data from the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), a continuous nationwide survey conducted by Chinese academic institutions since 2003. The CGSS, which involves around 10,000 respondents per wave, collects data on socio-demographic backgrounds and opinions on social issues. Starting in 2006, the CGSS incorporated questions on gender equality from the East Asian Social Survey (EASS), allowing for cross-regional comparisons. Five items measuring attitudes toward gender inequality were utilized, covering career focus, capability, marriage versus career prioritization, layoff priorities, and housework distribution. The study uses pooled data from five waves (2010, 2012, 2013, 2015, and 2017) of the CGSS to examine changes in attitudes over time. The advantage of employing pooled cross-sectional data is that an individual's attitude tends to persist, allowing examination of both individual and societal changes. To ensure data consistency, responses were recoded into a five-point ordinal scale. An ordered probit model was employed to analyze individual-level determinants, with covariates including gender, age, ethnicity, income, religion, education, political party affiliation, household origin (urban/rural), and marital status. Data from CGSS (2017), which included the EASS (2016) module, was used to examine the impact of patrilineal values on attitudes. The study also analyzes attitudes within married households to understand the influence of relative income, education, and age between spouses on gender equality views. The Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition technique was used to dissect the urban-rural differences in attitudes, separating the contributions of individual characteristics and unexplained factors. In addition, Lewbel's two-stage least squares (2SLS) method was applied to address potential endogeneity concerns when analyzing the effects of patrilineal values and relative spousal resources.

The study reveals a complex and nuanced picture of attitudes toward gender inequality in China. While there's a slight upward trend in attitudes rejecting the traditional notion that women should focus solely on family matters, the overall change in attitudes across the five years of data is not substantial across all five surveyed items. Education emerges as the strongest predictor of egalitarian attitudes. Individuals with higher levels of education are significantly more likely to oppose gender inequality across all five items, while those with lower education levels tend to hold more traditional views. The positive impact of education applies across all educational attainment levels, except for graduate degrees. In terms of married couples, the relative education level of the wife significantly influences attitudes; when the wife has a higher education level than her husband, respondents are more likely to support gender equality. Notably, the relative income of the wife has minimal effect on respondents' attitudes. The analysis of urban-rural differences shows that attitudes are significantly more egalitarian in urban areas, largely due to the urban-rural educational disparity. The unexplained component of the difference remains substantial, however, suggesting the role of other factors like traditional values and economic structures. Patrilineal values are strongly associated with more traditional views on gender equality, and their impact explains part of the urban-rural difference in attitudes. Women, compared to men, exhibit more positive attitudes towards gender equality across most aspects, except for the preference for women prioritizing a good marriage over their careers. The study highlights that Chinese society is experiencing a transition but that attitudes remain somewhat stuck between traditional and modern views, with the expectation that women participate more in paid work but not being relieved of household chores and without job security improvements.

The findings underscore the significant role of education in shaping attitudes towards gender equality in China. The strong positive correlation between education and support for gender equality suggests that educational interventions, especially in rural areas and targeting women, are crucial for promoting more equitable views. The prevalence of patrilineal values and the persistence of gender inequality in rural areas highlight the deeply ingrained cultural factors at play. Policies aimed at fostering gender equality must consider these cultural and structural factors. The relative influence of spousal resources suggests that educational parity within couples can significantly contribute to more egalitarian viewpoints. The persistence of traditional views on housework distribution implies that the expectation for women to participate more in the paid workforce is not accompanied by commensurate changes in the division of household labor. This suggests that strategies aimed at promoting women's labor market participation should also incorporate support measures to ease the burdens of unpaid care work. The continuing urban-rural gap, even with controlling for individual characteristics, suggests the persistence of contextual factors which must be addressed.

This study demonstrates the complex interplay of individual characteristics and cultural factors in shaping attitudes toward gender inequality in China. Education stands out as a crucial determinant of more egalitarian viewpoints, emphasizing the need for widespread educational improvements, particularly in rural areas. Addressing patrilineal values is crucial for further progress toward gender equality. Future research could explore the long-term impact of specific educational interventions and examine the interactions between educational attainment, economic development, and changes in gender attitudes. Further investigation into how changing economic structures might reduce the urban-rural disparity in attitudes towards gender equality would provide valuable insights. The need for policies that tackle cultural norms and structural barriers is highlighted, alongside interventions focusing on education.

The study relies on self-reported survey data, which is subject to biases such as social desirability effects. Respondents might not always express their true attitudes, potentially underreporting traditional views or overemphasizing support for gender equality. The cross-sectional nature of the data limits the ability to establish causal relationships definitively. The study's focus on attitudes, rather than behaviors, prevents a direct examination of the link between attitudes and actual gender-equitable practices. The sample sizes across the years do vary, which could affect the stability of the results. The time period examined (2010-2017) provides some evidence of a trend but may not capture the long-term shifts in attitudes.