Modernist literature is often understood as a response to the unprecedented traumas of the era, aligning with Freudian models of post-traumatic stress. This essay, however, proposes a re-evaluation of this perspective by applying Paul K. Saint-Amour's concept of "pre-traumatic stress syndrome" to Elizabeth Bowen's novels, *The Last September* and *The Heat of the Day*. Bowen's unique position as a modernist writer navigating the two World Wars and witnessing the decline of British imperial power alongside the decay of her own Anglo-Irish Ascendancy class provides a rich context for this analysis. While previous scholarship often categorizes Bowen's work into either postcolonial or modernist categories, this essay argues for a more nuanced approach, demonstrating the interconnectedness of her depictions of the Irish War of Independence and World War II in understanding her as a modernist writer. The core argument is that Bowen's novels demonstrate how the anticipation and anxiety preceding war can inflict psychological damage equivalent to the war itself, expanding the scope of literary trauma studies beyond the aftermath of violence.

Existing scholarship on modernist trauma writing primarily focuses on the post-traumatic aspects, often analyzing the "work of mourning" or the resistance to it in the literature of the period. The Freudian model of trauma, emphasizing repressed past experiences, has been a dominant lens for interpreting this literature. This essay contrasts this with Saint-Amour's work, *Tense Future*, which introduces the concept of "pre-traumatic stress syndrome." Saint-Amour juxtaposes Freud's focus on the past with Minkowski's emphasis on the future in understanding traumatic psychology. While acknowledging Freud's occasional connection between anticipation and psychic wounding, Saint-Amour highlights Minkowski's view of anxious expectation as a primary source of trauma. The essay draws on these perspectives to analyze Bowen's novels, challenging the limitations of a solely post-traumatic framework.

The essay employs a close reading of *The Last September* and *The Heat of the Day*, applying Saint-Amour's concept of "pre-traumatic stress syndrome" as a primary analytical tool. The analysis examines Bowen's portrayal of character psychology in both novels, focusing on the manifestation of traumatic symptoms *before* the catastrophic events. In *The Last September*, the essay analyzes the Anglo-Irish characters' "policy of not-noticing" the impending violence of the Irish War of Independence, arguing that this denial itself constitutes a pre-traumatic symptom. The essay explores the characters' anxieties and premonitions, linking them to Bowen's own experiences and autobiographical revisions. The destruction of the Big Houses is presented not merely as a historical event but as a culmination of pre-existing psychological trauma. In *The Heat of the Day*, the analysis centers on the "war-climate" of London during and after the Blitz. The essay examines how the characters' experience of continuous threat and anticipation of future air raids creates a state of perpetual trauma, exceeding the impact of the actual bombings. The essay considers the distorted temporality and fragmented narratives in the novel, relating them to the characters' traumatic psychology and their attempts to reconstruct the past to cope with the present and future.

The analysis of *The Last September* reveals that the Anglo-Irish characters' denial of the escalating political violence, their "policy of not-noticing," is not a defense mechanism but a pre-traumatic symptom that exacerbates the impact of the eventual destruction of their homes. Their anxieties and premonitions, often expressed subtly, highlight the psychological toll of anticipation. Bowen's autobiographical connection to the novel deepens the understanding of this pre-traumatic dimension. The analysis of *The Heat of the Day* demonstrates how the constant threat of air raids, the "war-climate," induces a state of anticipatory trauma in the characters. The disrupted chronology and fragmented narratives reflect the characters' psychological state, highlighting their struggles to make sense of the past and navigate an uncertain future. Stella Rodney's inability to provide a coherent account of her relationship with Robert Kelway during the inquest exemplifies this fractured temporality. The essay finds that the characters are more profoundly traumatized by the *anticipation* of future events than by the events that have already occurred. This aligns with Saint-Amour's concept of "weaponized anticipation," where the future is a predetermined site of catastrophic violence capable of inflicting damage in the present.

This study demonstrates how Bowen's literary representation of trauma significantly expands the understanding of trauma in modernist literature by shifting the focus from the post-traumatic to the pre-traumatic. It challenges the limitations of solely post-traumatic frameworks, offering a more nuanced understanding of the psychological impact of war and political upheaval. The analysis highlights the significance of anticipation and anxiety as potent sources of trauma, contributing to a broader understanding of trauma's complex temporality. Bowen's novels, by portraying pre-traumatic stress, offer valuable insights into the psychological experiences of individuals living under the shadow of imminent violence, enriching the field of trauma studies.

This essay contributes to trauma studies by introducing a pre-traumatic lens to the interpretation of modernist literature, specifically focusing on Elizabeth Bowen's work. It demonstrates that pre-war anxieties and anticipatory trauma can be as psychologically damaging as the actual events of war. Further research could explore the broader implications of this pre-traumatic model in analyzing other modernist texts and considering its relevance to contemporary understandings of trauma in the face of ongoing global crises.

The study focuses primarily on two novels by Elizabeth Bowen, limiting the generalizability of findings to other writers and contexts. Further research could expand the analysis to include a wider range of modernist literature to test the applicability of the pre-traumatic model more broadly. Moreover, the essay primarily utilizes literary analysis, and could benefit from incorporating interdisciplinary perspectives, such as historical and psychological analyses, to further strengthen its conclusions.