A cross-country analysis of sustainability, transport and energy poverty

Poverty, affecting nearly half the global population, limits access to basic services and hinders progress toward SDGs, particularly SDG 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy). Income inequality translates into disparities in energy consumption and emissions, with minority groups disproportionately exposed to energy poverty, inequality, and negative climate impacts. They are less likely to adopt renewable energy, less aware of clean energy services, and more likely to live in energy-inefficient dwellings. Energy poverty is multidimensional, extending beyond income to encompass access to desired energy services and maintaining comfortable indoor temperatures. Transport poverty, linked to infrastructure limitations, distance, expenses, and fuel scarcity, contributes to social exclusion, limits participation, and negatively impacts wellbeing and productivity. This research focuses on the intersection of energy and transport poverty, arguing that minorities and vulnerable groups are more likely to experience a 'double energy vulnerability,' simultaneously facing both forms of poverty. The study employs mixed methods (nationally representative surveys in the UAE, Mexico, and Ireland; focus groups; and household interviews in Mexico City, Northern Ireland, and the UAE) in mostly non-WEIRD countries to explore this double vulnerability across diverse contexts, enhancing the accuracy of indicators for transport poverty index (TPI) and energy poverty index (EPI).

Existing literature highlights the prevalence of poverty and its impact on access to essential services. Studies demonstrate that income and wealth are disproportionately distributed globally, resulting in energy consumption and emission inequalities. Minority groups are shown to be more vulnerable to energy poverty, less likely to adopt renewable energy, and more likely to reside in energy-inefficient dwellings. The multidimensional nature of energy poverty, extending beyond income limitations, is also emphasized. Research also addresses transport poverty, focusing on its contribution to social exclusion, reduced mobility, and its impact across several SDGs. However, the intersection of energy and transport poverty remains vastly underexplored, particularly in non-WEIRD countries. Prior research indicates that decarbonization policies can influence both energy and transport poverty, potentially exacerbating vulnerabilities. This study aims to fill this gap by investigating the intersection of energy and transport poverty in diverse non-WEIRD contexts.

This cross-country study utilizes a mixed-methods approach to examine energy and transport poverty. Three nationally representative surveys were conducted in the UAE (N=1141), Mexico (N=1205), and Ireland (N=1860), incorporating both quantitative and qualitative questions. Seven public focus groups (UAE: N=16; Northern Ireland: N=24; Mexico: N=18) were held with participants from rural and urban areas. Furthermore, 138 household interviews were conducted with vulnerable groups in Mexico City (slum dwellers), Northern Ireland (Gypsies and Travellers), and the UAE (temporary migrants), to understand their lived experiences and coping strategies. The study considered affordability, reliability, accessibility, and health and safety dimensions of energy and transport poverty. Data analysis employed nonlinear principal components analysis (NLPCA) to derive energy poverty index (EPI) and transport poverty index (TPI) from survey data. Qualitative data from interviews and focus groups were inductively coded to identify themes and patterns. The study also compares EPI and TPI across gender and minority/non-minority groups using Yuen's trimmed means test. The study's case study selection was designed to include countries from different continents with diverse sociodemographic profiles and levels of development, broadening the scope beyond WEIRD countries and offering unique policy considerations.

The study's results, disaggregated by affordability, reliability, accessibility, and health and safety, reveal that energy and transport poverty frequently coincide. While most prominent among minorities and those in peri-urban and rural areas, these forms of poverty affect even non-vulnerable urban populations regardless of national wealth. Affordability is central, with energy bills representing a significant portion of household expenditure across all locations. Inability to afford energy services led to consequences like electricity theft and business closure. High transport costs were comparable to housing expenses. Reliability issues, such as unpredictable energy outages and unreliable transport systems, were more common in peri-urban and rural areas, impacting vulnerable groups disproportionately. Accessibility challenges, including insufficient infrastructure and limited public transport, particularly affected those in rural and peri-urban areas. Health and safety concerns included compromised health from using wood for fuel, lack of access to cooling, and safety issues related to transport. Violence against women in public transportation also emerged as a significant concern. Survey analysis reveals a strong positive correlation between EPI and TPI (rho = 0.552), indicating a significant overlap between energy and transport poverty. Minority groups consistently exhibit higher EPI and TPI scores than non-minority groups, with women showing higher TPI scores than men. Qualitative data further reveals the role of discrimination and government inaction, highlighting peripheralization and spatial injustice in exacerbating energy and transport poverty.

The findings demonstrate the intertwined nature of energy and transport poverty, both involving energy consumption and being impacted by volatile fuel prices and decarbonization policies. Vulnerable groups experience these forms of poverty simultaneously, often resorting to coping mechanisms that compromise their health and well-being. Despite substantial differences across study locations, the consistent prevalence of these issues across diverse national contexts challenges the 2030 timeline for achieving SDGs. While macro-level economic indicators may not reflect poverty's severity, significant sub-national disparities exist. The results reveal that addressing energy and transport poverty requires addressing not just affordability but also reliability, accessibility, and safety. The study highlights the shortcomings of the SDGs in addressing poverty in specific contexts, suggesting the need for integrated policies tailored to local realities.

This research underscores the significant and simultaneous risk of energy and transport poverty faced by minorities and low-income households, exacerbated by discrimination and spatial injustice. Affordability is crucial, but reliability, accessibility, and safety are equally critical. The study challenges the 2030 SDG timeline, revealing widespread poverty even in resource-rich countries. Future research should investigate the effectiveness of specific policies and interventions, examining their impact on vulnerable groups in diverse contexts. A focus on diversified energy sources, decoupling economic growth from resource use, and targeted social programs is necessary to advance sustainable development and address the “double energy vulnerability.”

The study's findings may not be generalizable to all contexts due to its specific sample locations and focus groups. The reliance on self-reported data may introduce bias, although the rigorous methodology helps to mitigate these issues. Future research could explore other regions and incorporate additional methods to validate the findings.