This study uses geospatial analysis of global satellite imagery from 1990–2020 to examine the seaward expansion of the world’s top 100 container ports. The research finds that 65 of these ports have rapidly expanded seaward, adding approximately 978 km² in gross port area through coastal land reclamation. The relationship between footprint expansion and throughput volume is highly variable, highlighting the complex interplay of factors driving seaport growth. The study's implications include informing global assessments of critical infrastructure vulnerability and the environmental consequences of coastal land reclamation.

Dhritiraj Sengupta, Eli D. Lazarus